APWH Vocab

Animism - Belief that objects have spirits and conscious life. Shamanism - Religion mediating between visible and spirit worlds. Shintoism - Japanese religion focusing on nature and ancestors. Pastoral societies - Societies based on domestication of animals. Judaism - Monotheistic religion based on Torah and Talmud. Monotheism - Belief in a single, all-powerful God. Hinduism - Religion from India emphasizing reincarnation and dharma. Polytheism - Belief in multiple gods and deities. Reincarnation - Rebirth of the soul in a new body. Caste System - Hindu social class system influencing daily life. Dharma - Religious and moral duties in Hindu belief. Buddha - Founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama. Buddhism - Belief system teaching happiness through desire removal. Theravada - Branch of Buddhism close to original Buddha teachings. Mahayana - Buddhism form emphasizing universal access to nirvana. Bodhisattva - Buddhist who delays nirvana to help others. Monasticism - Life dedicated to faith, withdrawing from society. Mandate of Heaven - Divine right of Chinese kings to rule. Confucianism - Ethics and education system taught by Confucius. Filial Piety - Respect children owe to parents and elders. Zoroastrianism - Monotheistic religion founded by Zoroaster in Persia. Greco-Roman Philosophy - Ideas emphasizing logic and empirical observation. Christianity - Religion based on Jesus' life and teachings. Syncretism - Blending beliefs from different religious traditions. Silk Roads - Trade routes linking Eurasia overland. Trans-Saharan Trade - Trade route significant for gold and salt. Indian Ocean Maritime System - Network of trade routes around the Indian Ocean. Mediterranean Sea Lane - Trade route connecting North Africa, Asia, Europe. Muhammed - Prophet and founder of Islam. Islam - Religion emphasizing one God and moral law. Sunnis - Muslims believing community should select leaders. Shi'a - Islam branch recognizing Ali as rightful successor. Abbasids - Dynasty ruling Muslim Empire from 750 to 1250. Turkic migration - Migration of Turks from Central Asia to Turkey. Seljuk Turks - Nomadic Turks conquering Baghdad in 1055. Crusades - Holy wars by Christians to reclaim the Holy Land. Ulama - Muslim scholars interpreting Islamic law. Sufis - Islamic mystics spreading Islam to Afro-Asian regions. Southernization - Developments from Southern Asia influencing globally. Mongols - Nomadic people who captured Baghdad in 1258. Chinggis Khan - Mongol ruler who defeated Turkish Persian kingdoms. Hulegu - Grandson of Chinggis Khan, captured Baghdad in 1257. Mamluks - Egyptian rulers descended from Turkish slaves. Mahmud of Ghazni - Islamic leader raiding Northern India, destroying temples. Dehli Sultanate - Government by Afghani Muslims after 1500. Malacca - Flourishing trading city in Malaya. Dar-al-Islam - Lands under Islamic rule. Al-Andalus - City where Umayyad prince brought Islam to Spain. Arab Agricultural Revolution - Agricultural transformation in Islamic region, 8th-13th century. Bhaktic Cults - Hindu groups emphasizing emotional devotion to deities. Srivijaya - Maritime empire controlling the Strait of Malacca. Ethiopia - East African nation beside the Nile River. Copts - Christian minority group in Egypt. Sahel - Land strip dividing desert and wetter areas. Sudanic States - States trading with North Africa, mixing cultures. Ghana - First known kingdom in sub-Saharan West Africa. Gold and Salt Trade - Economic trade between North and sub-Saharan Africa. Trans-Saharan Caravan Routes - Network linking North Africa with sub-Saharan Africa. Mali - West African kingdom following Ghana, promoting Islam. Sundiata - Founder of the Mali Empire. Mansa Musa - Mali emperor known for pilgrimage to Mecca. Griots - West African storytellers preserving oral history. Ibn Battuta - Arab traveler documenting African societies and cultures. Timbuktu - Mali trading city, center of wealth and learning. Songhay - West African kingdom rising after Mali's decline. Sharia - Islamic law combining Quran and Hadith. Swahili - Bantu language influenced by Arabic. Benin - Kingdom in the West African rain forest. Kongo Kingdom - Agricultural kingdom on the lower Congo River. Great Zimbabwe - Powerful African state thriving from gold trade. Constantinople - Capital of the Byzantine Empire. Justinian - Byzantine emperor defending against Persian threats. Hagia Sophia - Byzantine architectural masterpiece built under Justinian. Kiev - Trade city in Russia, flourishing until 12th century. Eastern Orthodox - Christian religion of the Byzantine Empire. Middle Ages - Period from Roman Empire's collapse to Renaissance. Charlemagne - King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor. Holy Roman Empire - Decentralized Germanic empire fragmenting Europe. Vikings - Scandinavian invaders impacting European history. Manorialism - Economic system based on manors and lords. Serfs - Laborers bound to a lord's estate. Feudalism - Political system granting land for loyalty. Vassals - Lesser lords serving greater lords. Magna Carta - Document guaranteeing rights and privileges. Parliament - Body of representatives making national laws. Hundred Years War - Conflicts between France and England, 1337-1453. Investiture - Ceremony for formal authority and office symbols. Thomas Aquinas - Philosopher asserting faith can be logically proven. Scholasticism - Medieval system reconciling faith with reason. Hanseatic League - Commercial alliance of North German cities. Guilds - Associations protecting merchants' and artisans' interests. Bubonic Plague - Deadly illness spread in 1340s Europe. Little Ice Age - Cool climate period affecting northern European agriculture. Romanesque - Church architecture style with round arches. Gothic - Medieval style characterized by mystery and grotesqueness. Italian City States - Major trading cities like Venice and Florence. Venice - Italian city aiding Byzantines for trade privileges. Maya city states - Classical cultures in Southern Mexico and Central America. Toltecs - Nomadic peoples known for military ethics in Mesoamerica. Quetzalcoatl - Aztec nature god associated with Cortes' return. Tenochtitlan - Capital of the Aztec Empire on Lake Texcoco. Huitzilopochtil - Aztec god central to sacrifice and warfare. Chinampas - Floating farming islands created by the Aztecs. Pochteca - Professional merchants in Aztec society. Calpulli - Clans providing land and labor in Aztec society. Mit'a - Andean labor system of shared obligations. Quipu - Knotted strings used by the Inca for recording numbers. Ayllus - Incan societal clan community working on projects. Cuzco - Capital city of the Incan Empire in Peru. Quechua - Language of the Incas. Waru Waru - Andean agricultural technique for erosion control. Terracing - Flat hillside platforms reducing soil runoff. Chaco/Pueblo - Anasazi civilization known for trading and pueblo houses. Cahokia - Ancient settlement serving as a trading center. Mesa Verde - Large cliff dwelling providing defense for Anasazi. Hangzhou - Capital city of the Song Dynasty. Sui Dynasty - Short dynasty building the Grand Canal and strengthening governance. Chang'an - Capital of Tang dynasty, populous city of its time. Pure Land Buddhism - Chinese Buddhism emphasizing mass salvation. Chan Buddhism - Known as Zen in Japan, stressing meditation and beauty. Tang Dynasty - Dynasty using Confucianism with merit-based bureaucracy. Zhu Xi - Prominent neo-Confucian scholar emphasizing philosophical application. Neo-Confucianism - Resurgence of Confucianism during the Tang Dynasty. Song Dynasty - Dynasty focused on civil administration and arts. Jurchens - Founders of the Qing kingdom. Southern Song - Smaller dynasty presiding over a great cultural reign. Grand Canal - Canal linking Northern and Southern China. Junks - Sturdy Chinese ship design capable of carrying heavy cargo. Flying money - Chinese credit instrument reducing robbery risks. Porcelain - Beautiful thin pottery invented in China. Foot binding - Chinese practice mutilating women's feet for smaller size. Tribute systems - Conquered regions maintaining autonomy by paying tax. Champa rice - Quick-maturing rice allowing double harvests. Samurai - Warrior class member in premodern feudal Japan. Shoguns - Military leaders of the bakufu. Daimyos - Warlord rulers consolidating mini-states after the civil war. Sinification - Adaptation of Chinese culture in other regions. Karakorum - Capital of the Mongol Empire under Chinggis Khan. Golden Horde - Mongol khanate in southern Russia adopting Turkic influences. Khanates - Regional Mongol kingdoms formed after Chinggis Khan's death. Kublai Khan - Grandson of Chinggis Khan, founder of the Yuan Dynasty. Chabi - Influential wife of Kublai Khan, defying social conventions. Pax Mongolica - Period of peace and stability under the Mongol Empire. Yuan Dynasty - Dynasty established by Mongols, with a unique bureaucracy. Tamerlane - Military leader similar to Ghengis Khan, with a decentralized empire. Ming Dynasty - Succeeded Yuan dynasty, focusing on internal development. Nestorians - Christian sect supporting Islamic invasions over Byzantine rule. Shamanistic religion - Mongol belief system focusing on nature spirits. Ilkhanate - Mongol state ruling Persia post-Abbasid abolition. Caravanserai - Eastern inns providing accommodation for caravans. Marco Polo - Venetian traveler whose accounts increased Asian trade interest. Ibn Rushd - Muslim philosopher merging Aristotle's and Plato's views with Islam. Zheng He - Ming imperial eunuch known for state voyages. Renaissance - Movement centering on the revival of classical learning. Petrarch - Father of Humanism. Vasco da Gama - Portuguese explorer who established a sea route to India. Calicut - Spice port where da Gama landed in India. Henry the Navigator - Portuguese prince leading seafaring efforts in the 14th century. Bills of exchange - Formal IOUs stating when payments need to be made. Ethnocentrism - Belief in one's own ethnic group's superiority. Castile & Aragon - Kingdoms in Iberian Peninsula leading reconquest from Muslims. Polynesian migration - Eastward migration to Hawaii spreading culture and religion. Astrolabe - Instrument for determining location using stars. Carrack - Large Portuguese ocean travel ship. Caravel - Maneuverable three-masted ship used by explorers. Fluyt - Type of Dutch sailing vessel designed for cargo. Christopher Columbus - Discovered Americas in 1492, seeking a route to India. Ferdinand Magellan - Led first expedition to sail around the world. Join Stock Companies - Companies whose stock is owned jointly by shareholders. Columbian Exchange - Exchange of plants, animals, and technologies after Columbus's voyages. Manioc - Tropical plant with starchy roots. Lepanto - Naval battle resulting in a Spanish victory over Ottomans. Core Nations - Nations profiting from the global economy, controlling trade. Dependent economic zones - Regions producing raw materials, relying on European markets. Mercantilism - Economic policy seeking national wealth through gold and exports. Northwest Passage - Sought water route from Atlantic to Pacific through Canada. Mestizos - Persons of mixed Native American and European ancestry. Francisco Pizarro - Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas. Seven Years War - Conflict between French and English leading to English dominance. Treaty of Paris - Agreement recognizing the United States as a free country. Cape Colony - Dutch colony established at Cape of Good Hope. Boers - Dutch settlers in South Africa. Calcutta - Headquarters of British East India Company in India. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince - Book advocating rulers may use any means to maintain authority. Humanism - Renaissance movement focusing on human potential and achievements. Northern Renaissance - Extension of Italian Renaissance with a religious focus. Johannes Gutenberg - Inventor of the printing press. Reformation - 16th century movement to reform the Catholic Church. Martin Luther - Posted 95 Theses leading to religious reform and Protestantism. Protestantism - Form of Christianity opposing the Catholic Church. Anglican Church - Church created by Henry VIII allowing divorce and remarriage. Jean Calvin - French Protestant who established Calvinism centered on predestination. Huguenots - French Protestants facing persecution. Catholic/Counter Reformation - Internal reform of the Catholic Church in the 16th century. Jesuits - Society of Jesus founded to spread Catholic teachings. Edict of Nantes - Granted Huguenots freedom of worship in 1598. Thirty Years War - European wars primarily between Catholics and Protestants. Treaty of Westphalia - Ended Thirty Years War granting religion choice in Holy Roman Empire. English Civil War - Conflict featuring disputes over monarchy power. Copernicus - Proposed heliocentric model with the sun at the center. Witchcraft persecution - Resentment leading to the death of over 100,000 Europeans. Scientific Revolution - Change in European thought characterized by observation and questioning. Galileo - First to use a telescope to study the stars. Issac Newton - Defined laws of motion, discovered gravity, wrote 'Principia'. Deism - Belief in a God not involved in people's lives. John Locke - Philosopher asserting people's natural rights to life, liberty, property. Absolute Monarchy - Government system where king or queen holds complete power. Louis XIV - Sun King of France known for controlling the state. Versailles - Palace built by Louis XIV outside Paris. Glorious Revolution - Political changes of 1688-1689 when James II was replaced. Parliamentary monarchy - Government with king or queen limited by parliament's powers. Frederick the Great - Prussian king known for cultural embrace and legal reforms. Enlightenment - Movement advocating reason in social institutions reappraisal. Adam Smith - Scottish economist seen as the father of modern Capitalism. Mary Wollstonecraft - Early feminist advocating equal education for women. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile - Married monarchs initiating exploration of the New World. Encomienda - Land grant allowing settlers to use Native Americans as laborers. Hispaniola - First island settled by Spaniards in the Caribbean. Bartolome de Las Casas - Bishop in Mexico advocating for Amerindian protection. Hernan Cortes - Spanish conquistador defeating the Aztecs in Mexico. Moctezuma II - Emperor of the Aztecs during Cortes's conquest. Potosi - Rich silver mining center in colonial Spanish America. Huancavelica - Location of mercury deposits aiding silver production. Haciendas - Large estates owned by wealthy families but worked by peasants. Galleons - Sailing ships utilized by Spain for trade. Treaty of Tordesillas - 1494 agreement dividing newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal. Council of the Indies - Body advising the king on Spanish colonies' laws. Viceroyalties - Administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas. Minas Gerais - Brazilian region with gold rush discoveries. Rio de Janeiro - Brazilian port becoming the colonial capital. Peninsulares - Spanish-born individuals ruling in Latin America. Creoles - People of Spanish descent born in Latin America. Mulatto - Individuals of mixed European and African descent in Latin America. War of The Spanish Succession - A conflict that lasted from 1701 to 1714 over the succession to the Spanish throne, involving several European powers. Marquis of Pombal - Portuguese statesman who implemented reforms in Portugal during the mid-18th century, aimed at modernizing the economy and administration. Communero Revolt - A popular uprising in colonial Spanish America during the 18th century, primarily in New Granada, against colonial authorities and Spanish rule. Tupac Amaru - An indigenous leader who led a major revolt against Spanish colonial rule in Peru in the late 18th century, seeking to end oppression and promote rights for indigenous people. Smallpox, Measles, Influenza - Diseases that significantly impacted indigenous populations in the Americas during European colonization. Chattel Slavery - A system of slavery where individuals are treated as personal property to be bought and sold, often involving the forced labor of African people in the Americas. Corvee Labor - A system of unpaid labor where individuals are required to work for a certain period for the state or a landowner, often seen in colonial economies. Indentured Servitude - A labor system where individuals work for a fixed term in exchange for passage to the Americas, often leading to eventual freedom. Triangular Trade (Atlantic System) - A historical trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, involving the exchange of goods, enslaved people, and raw materials. Asante - A powerful West African kingdom known for its wealth and trade in gold and slaves, particularly during the 18th century. Dahomey - A West African kingdom known for its military prowess, involvement in the slave trade, and unique cultural practices, especially during the 17th to 19th centuries. Great Trek - A migration of Dutch-speaking settlers (Boers) in South Africa during the 1830s and 1840s, seeking to escape British rule and establish their own territories. Zulu - A prominent ethnic group in South Africa known for their warrior culture and resistance against colonial powers, particularly during the 19th century. Shaka - The founder of the Zulu Empire in the early 19th century, known for his military innovations and strategies that transformed the Zulu nation. Middle Passage - The brutal sea journey undertaken by enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas during the transatlantic slave trade. Candomble - A Brazilian Afro-American religion that combines African traditions with Catholicism and indigenous beliefs, emphasizing rituals and worship of deities known as Orixás. Vodun - A religion practiced in Haiti and parts of the Caribbean, rooted in African spiritual traditions, characterized by the veneration of spirits and ancestors. William Wilberforce - A British politician and social reformer who was a leading campaigner against the transatlantic slave trade, advocating for its abolition in the early 19th century. Boyars - Nobles in Russia and Romania during the medieval and early modern periods, known for their significant political and social influence. Ivan The Great (III/3) - A Grand Prince of Moscow who united the Russian lands and laid the groundwork for the Russian state, ruling from 1462 to 1505. Ivan The Terrible (IV/4) - The first Tsar of Russia, known for his complex and often tyrannical rule, reigning from 1547 to 1584. He expanded Russian territory and centralized power. Cossacks - Members of a group of predominantly East Slavic-speaking people known for their military and horse-riding skills, often serving as frontier warriors in Russia and Ukraine. Time of Troubles - A period of political crisis and social upheaval in Russia from 1598 to 1613, marked by famine, foreign invasion, and civil war, leading to the end of the Rurik dynasty. Romanovs - The ruling dynasty of Russia from 1613 to 1917, known for its autocratic rule and significant contributions to Russian culture and expansion. Peter The Great (I/1) - The Tsar of Russia from 1682 to 1725, known for his extensive reforms aimed at modernizing Russia and expanding its territory, including the establishment of St. Petersburg. Catherine The Great (II/2) - The Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, recognized for her significant role in the expansion of the Russian Empire, her patronage of the arts, and the implementation of various reforms. Partition of Poland - A series of three territorial divisions of Poland that occurred in the late 18th century, resulting in the country's disappearance from the map of Europe for over a century. Third Rome - A concept in Russian history that suggests Moscow is the successor to the legacy of Rome and Byzantium, often associated with the idea of a divinely ordained empire. St. Petersburg - The capital city of Russia founded by Peter the Great in 1703, known for its significant cultural heritage and as a major European city. Ottomans - A powerful empire that controlled much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa from the 14th century until the early 20th century, known for its cultural and architectural achievements. Mehmed II - An Ottoman sultan known for conquering Constantinople in 1453, effectively ending the Byzantine Empire. Ghazis - Warriors for Islam who fought against non-Muslims, often forming the military backbone of early Ottoman expansion. Janissaries - Elite infantry units of the Ottoman Empire, originally composed of Christian boys taken as a form of tribute and converted to Islam. Devshirme - A system used by the Ottomans to recruit boys from Christian families, converting them to Islam and training them as soldiers or administrators. Vizier - A high-ranking political advisor or minister in the Ottoman Empire, responsible for overseeing the administration and implementation of policies. Suleyman - The Magnificent, the longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, known for his significant expansion of the empire and for his cultural contributions. Suleymaniye Mosque - A grand mosque in Istanbul commissioned by Suleyman the Magnificent, showcasing Ottoman architecture and serving as a significant religious site. Tax Farming (Ottoman) - appointed "tax farmers" to pay an annual fixed sum of money for an area to the central government and collected money of gold from residents of that area Safavids - A Shi'ite Muslim dynasty that ruled in Persia (Iran and parts of Iraq) from the 16th-18th centuries that had a mixed culture of the Persians, Ottomans and Arabs. Shah - Persian word for king Imams - Shi'a religious leaders who traced their descent to Ali's successors. Mullahs - Local mosque officials and prayer leaders within the Safavid Empire; agents of Safavid religious campaign to convert all of population to Shi'ism Isfahan - Capital of the Safavid Empire. Mughals - muslim rulers over india, combined Hindu and Muslim, brought India to the peak of its political empire, had a single government with a common culture Akbar The Great - known for religious tolerance. grandson of Babur who created a strong central government Din-i-Ilahi - Religion initiated by Akbar in Mughal India; blended elements of the many faiths of the subcontinent; key to efforts to reconcile Hindus and Muslims in India, but failed. Fatehpur Sikri - city planned by Akabar to be capital from 1569 to 1585; contained private residence for rulers along with a mint. Contained a mosque and mausoleum of guru Shaykh Salim Chisti; soon was abandoned Sati - The Indian custom of a widow voluntarily throwing herself on the funeral pyre of her husband. Taj Mahal - beautiful mausoleum at Agra built by the Mogul emperor Shah Jahan (completed in 1649) in memory of his favorite wife Marattas - Western India peoples who rebelled against Mughal control early in 18th century Sikhs/Sikhism - blended elements of both Islam and Hinduism Zamindars - blended elements of both Islam and Hinduism Gunpowder Empires - Muslim empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and the Mughals that employed cannonry and gunpowder to advance their military causes. Caravel - A small, highly maneuverable three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish in the exploration of the Atlantic. Asian sea trading network - Prior to intervention of Europeans, consisted of three zones: Arab zone based on glass, carpets and tapestries; India based on cotton textiles; and China based on paper, porcelain, and silks. Ormuz - Portuguese factory or fortified trade town located at southern end of Persian Gulf; site for forcible entry into Asian sea trade network. Goa - a state in western India; formerly a coastal city that was made the base of Portugal's Indian trade Batavia - Dutch fortress located after 1620 on the island of Java Dutch trading empire - The Dutch system extending into Asia with fortified towns and factories, warships on patrol, and monopoly control of a limited number of products. Middle Kingdom - a period of order and stability that lasted until about 1750 BC Scholar Gentry - Chinese class created by the marital linkage of the local land-holding aristocracy with the office-holding shi; superseded shi as governors of China. Mandarins - members of the elite class of civil servents in Chinese government Macao - One of two ports in which Europeans were permitted to trade in China during the Ming dynasty Matteo Ricci - Portuguese Jesuit missionary who went to China, assimilated into Chinese culture and language and ran a Christian mission in China. Canton - One of two port cities in which Europeans were permitted to trade in China during the Ming dynasty Cohong/Compradors - guild of Chinese merchants who operated the import-export monopoly in Canton during the Qing dynasty (East Asia) Nobunaga - The first Japanese daimyo to make extensive use of firearms; in 1573 deposed the last Ashikaga shogun; unified much of central Honshu; died in 1582. Francis Xavier - This was a man who helped Ignatius of Loyola to start the Jesuits. He also was famous for his number of missionaries he went on to promote Christianity Toyotomi Hideyoshi - General under Nobanga; suceeded as leading military power in Japan; continued efforts to break power of daimyos; constucted a series of military alliances that made him the military master of Japan in 1590; died in 1598. Tokugawa Ieyasu - Vassal of Toyotomi Hideyoshi; succeeded him as most powerful military figure in Japan; granted title of shogun in 1603 and established Tokugawa Shogunate; established political unity in Japan. Edo - Tokugawa capital city; modern-day Tokyo; center of the Tokugawa shogunate. Salaried Samurai - salaried by a powerful landowner, who relied upon them for defense and contracted them out for the defense of Japan or in other conflicts. Deshima - Island in Nagasaki Bay; only port open to non-Japanese after closure of the islands in the 1640s; only Chinese and Dutch ships were permitted to enter. School of National Learning - New ideology that laid emphasis on Japan's unique historical experience and the revival of indigenous culture at the expense of Chinese imports such as Confucianism; typical of Japan in 18th century. Manchu - Federation of Northeast Asian peoples who founded the Qing Empire. Old Regime - The Political and Social system that existed in France before the French Revolution First Estate - The first class of French society made up of the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church. Second Estate - The second class of French society made up of the noblility Third Estate - 97% of the population (the rest of France) They consisted of the bourgeoisie, the san-culottes and the peasants; they paid high taxes and had no special privileges taille - an annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy "relics of feudalism" - obligations of peasants to noble landlords that survived into the modern era Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette - queen and king during the French Revolution, Marie was Austrian (French hate Austrians) lived a spoiled, lavish lifestyle when the rest of France was starving National Assembly - French Revolutionary assembly (1789-1791). Called first as the Estates General, the three estates came together and demanded radical change. It passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man in 1789. Storming or the Bastille - Destruction of the prison seen as the true start of the French Revolution. Great Fear - A wave of senseless panic that spread through the French countryside after the storming of the Bastille in 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man - Statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution. Olympe de Gouges - French journalist who demanded equal rights for women. Declaration of Rights of Women - Olympe de Gouges, 1791; women should have equal rights to men, women's responsibility to attain them Jacobins - Radical republicans during the French Revolution. They were led by Maximilien Robespierre from 1793 to 1794. National Convention - The meeting of party delegates every four years to choose a presidential ticket and write the party's platform. Robespierre - A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial. Conscription - A military draft Reign of Terror - (1793-94) during the French Revolution when thousands were executed for "disloyalty" Toussaint L'Ouverture - Was an important leader of the Haïtian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti; in a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator. Directory - Established after the Reign of Terror / National Convention; a five man group as the executive branch of the country; incompetent and corrupt, only lasted for 4 years. Napolean Bonaparte - 1769-1821. French military and political leader. General during French Revolution, Ruler of France as First Consul of French Republic, King of Italy, Mediator of Swiss Confederation, and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. Coup d'etat - A sudden overthrow of the government by a small group Concordat of 1801 - This is the agreement between Pope Pius VII and Napoleon that healed the religious division in France by giving the French Catholics free practice of their religion and Napoleon political power Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) - The articles included equality of all people, freedom of religion, workers were legally subordinate to their employers and unable to strike, workers were required to have small passports, and family was the most important thing besides the state and the individual. It also addressed the legal status of women: women were not equal to men. Grand Empire - The empire over which Napoleon and his allies ruled, encompassing virtually all of Europe except Great Britain and Russia. Trafalagar - The most significant naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars Continental System - Napoleon's policy of preventing trade between Great Britain and continental Europe, intended to destroy Great Britain's economy. Scorched Earth Policy - the practice of burning crops and killing livestock during wartime so that the enemy cannot live off the land Waterloo - The site of Napoleon's defeat by British and Prussian armies in 1815, which ended his last bid for power