APHG Unit 4 Study Guide

ADVANCED PLACEMENT HUMAN GEOGRAPHY UNIT IV: STUDY GUIDE: POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF SPACE

BIG IDEAS

• BIG IDEA 1: Patterns and Spatial Organization

  • How do historical and current events influence political structures around the world?

• BIG IDEA 2: Impacts and Interactions

  • How are balances of power reflected in political boundaries and government power structures?

• BIG IDEA 3: Spatial Patterns and Societal Change

  • How can political, economic, cultural, or technological changes challenge state sovereignty?

TOPIC 4.1: INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY

Learning Objective

1. Define the different types of political entities.

2. Identify a contemporary example of political entities

Essential Knowledge

• Independent states are the primary building blocks of the world political map.

• Types of political entities include:

  • Nations

  • Nation-states

  • Stateless nations

  • Multinational states

  • Multi-state regions

  • Autonomous and semiautonomous regions, such as American Indian Reservations.

Examples of Political Entities

1. Examples of a nation:

   • Kurds, Palestinians, Chechens, Basques.

2. Examples of nation states:

   • Japan, Iceland, Portugal, South Korea.

3. Examples of multinational states:

   • Canada (Québécois, English-speaking Canadians), Russia (numerous ethnic groups), India, Nigeria.

4. Examples of multi-state nations:

   • The Korean nation (North Korea and South Korea), The Albanian nation (Albania and Kosovo's Albanian majority).

5. Examples of autonomous regions:

   • American Indian Reservations, Alaskan Native Corporation Lands, Hawaiian Home Lands.

6. Examples of stateless nations:

   • Kurds (spread across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Syria), Palestinians (Israel, West Bank, Gaza, refugee camps), Basques (Spain, France), Roma (Europe).

TOPIC 4.2: POLITICAL PROCESSES

Learning Objective

• Explain the processes that have shaped contemporary political geography

Essential Knowledge

• Sovereignty, nation-states, and self-determination are central to contemporary world politics.

• Factors such as colonialism, imperialism, independence, and devolution along national lines have influenced contemporary political boundaries.

• Colonizing Countries and Colonies:

  Colonizing Country	Colony (Example)
  United Kingdom	India, Canada, Australia, Nigeria
  France	Algeria, Vietnam, Mali, Senegal
  Spain	Mexico, Peru, Philippines, Cuba
  Portugal	Brazil, Angola, Mozambique
  Belgium	Democratic Republic of Congo
  Germany	Namibia, Tanzania, Cameroon
  Netherlands	Indonesia, Suriname
  Italy	Libya, Eritrea, Somalia
  United States	Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam

  • What concepts does this political cartoon show?

  • This political cartoon can show concepts like imperialism, colonialism, resource exploitation, ethnocentrism, unequal power dynamics, and the "scramble for Africa" (if depicting that event).

  • What laws or agreements can be associated with this?

  • Treaties like the Treaty of Tordesillas (earlier partitioning), the Berlin Conference ($1884$-$1885$), and various bilateral treaties establishing spheres of influence and colonial borders.

TOPIC 4.3: POLITICAL POWER AND TERRITORIALITY

Learning Objective

• Describe the concepts of political power and territoriality as used by geographers.

Essential Knowledge

• Political Power is expressed geographically as control over people, land, and resources. This can be illustrated through:

  • Neocolonialism

  • Shatterbelts

  • Choke Points

• Territoriality is the connection of people, cultures, and economic systems to the land.

• The practice of private investors and foreign governments leasing farmland for large-scale commercial farming is typically associated with neocolonial practices.

Major Shatterbelt Regions

• Create a list of major shatterbelt regions and explain the conflicts associated with each.

  • Balkans (Southeastern Europe):

    Historical conflicts post-Yugoslavia breakup, ethnic strife (Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Albanians), religious divisions (Orthodox, Catholic, Muslim).

  • Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos):

    Conflicts during the Cold War (proxy wars), ethnic tensions, competing political ideologies, maritime disputes in the South China Sea.

  • Middle East (e.g., Israel/Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Yemen):

    Geopolitical tensions, resource conflicts (oil, water), religious and ethnic divisions (Sunni/Shia, Arab/Kurd), external interventions.

  • East Africa (e.g., Horn of Africa):

    Internal conflicts, border disputes (Ethiopia-Eritrea), piracy, famine, religious extremism.

TOPIC 4.4: DEFINING POLITICAL BOUNDARIES

Learning Objective

• Define types of political boundaries used by geographers.

Essential Knowledge

• Types of political boundaries include:

  • Relic boundaries: A boundary that no longer functions but is maintained for historical significance.

  • Superimposed boundaries: Boundaries that are imposed on the cultural landscape, often without regard for existing patterns.

  • Subsequent boundaries: Boundaries that develop alongside cultural landscapes.

  • Antecedent boundaries: Boundaries drawn before significant settlement or before the cultural landscape was developed.

  • Geometric boundaries: Boundaries defined by straight lines often unrelated to the physical landscape.

  • Consequent boundaries: Boundaries that are drawn to accommodate cultural differences.

Examples of Political Boundaries

TOPIC 4.5: THE FUNCTION OF POLITICAL BOUNDARIES

Learning Objective

• Explain the nature and function of international and internal boundaries.

Essential Knowledge

• Boundaries are defined, delimited, demarcated, and administered to establish limits of sovereignty, but they are often contested.

• Political boundaries often coincide with cultural, national, or economic divisions.

• Some boundaries are created by demilitarized zones or policies, such as in the Berlin Conference.

• Land and maritime boundaries, alongside international agreements, can influence national or regional identity and can promote or discourage interactions and disputes over resources.

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in the use of international waters, territorial seas, and exclusive economic zones.

Impact of the Berlin Conference

• Explain the lasting impact of the Berlin Conference on Africa.

  • The Berlin Conference ($1884$-$1885$) formalized the "Scramble for Africa" by European powers, dividing the continent into colonies with little regard for existing ethnic, linguistic, or cultural boundaries.

  • Lasting impact:

    • Arbitrary Borders:

      Created political boundaries that often split ethnic groups and combined rival ones, leading to internal conflicts and civil wars after independence.

    • Weak State Structures:

      Imposed European administrative systems, which often undermined traditional governance and created artificial states lacking national cohesion.

    • Economic Exploitation:

      Established economies focused on resource extraction for European benefit, hindering industrialization and diverse economic development in African nations.

    • Loss of Sovereignty and Identity:

      Stripped African societies of their self-governance and cultural autonomy, leading to long-term challenges in nation-building and self-determination.

• Discuss the importance and concepts behind the three theories of territorial power: Organic Theory, Heartland Theory, Rimland Theory.

  • Organic Theory (Friedrich Ratzel):

    • Concept:

      States are like living organisms that need to grow and expand into new territories ("lebensraum" or living space) to survive and thrive. A state's power is linked to its land area and the resources it can control.

    • Importance:

      Often cited as a geopolitical justification for expansionism, imperialism, and even Nazi Germany's territorial ambitions.

  • Heartland Theory (Halford Mackinder):

    • Concept:

      The "Heartland" (Eastern Europe and Western/Central Asia) is the most strategically important region due to its vast resources and invulnerability to sea power. Control of this area would lead to world dominance.

    • Quote:

      "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island (Eurasia and Africa); Who rules the World-Island commands the world."

    • Importance:

      Influenced Cold War strategy, emphasizing the control of land-based power and buffer states to prevent global dominance by a single power.

  • Rimland Theory (Nicholas Spykman):

    • Concept:

      Counter to the Heartland Theory, Spykman argued that the "Rimland" (the coastal areas surrounding the Heartland, including Western Europe, the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia) is more crucial for global power. Control of the Rimland, with its access to both land and sea, would prevent any single power from dominating the world.

    • Quote:

      "Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia; who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world."

    • Importance:

      Influenced U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War, leading to alliances and interventions in regions like Western Europe, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia to contain the Soviet Union.

• Draw a labeled diagram to demonstrate the UN Laws of the Sea.

  • Description of UN Laws of the Sea (Diagram):

    • Base Line:

      The low-water line along the coast.

    • Internal Waters:

      Waters on the landward side of the baseline (e.g., rivers, lakes, ports). A state has full sovereignty.

    • Territorial Sea ($12$ nautical miles from the baseline):

      A state has full sovereignty, including airspace above and seabed below, but foreign vessels have the right of innocent passage.

    • Contiguous Zone ($24$ nautical miles from the baseline):

      A state can enforce customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary laws to prevent infringement within its territorial sea.

    • Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ - $200$ nautical miles from the baseline):

      A state has sovereign rights for exploring and exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources (e.g., fishing, oil, gas) of the waters, seabed, and subsoil. Other states have freedom of navigation and overflight.

    • Continental Shelf (up to $350$ nautical miles or $100$ miles beyond the $2500$ meter isobath):

      A state has sovereign rights over the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources and non-living resources of the seabed and subsoil.

    • High Seas:

      Beyond the EEZ, open to all states for navigation, overflight, fishing, scientific research, etc. No state has sovereignty.

    • The Area (international seabed beyond national jurisdiction):

      Its resources are the common heritage of mankind.

TOPIC 4.6: INTERNAL BOUNDARIES

Learning Objective

• Explain the nature and function of internal boundaries.

Essential Knowledge

• Concepts such as voting districts, redistricting, and gerrymandering play crucial roles and impact political results at various scales.

• Analyze the impact of gerrymandering on the political landscape in the United States, considering both positive and negative implications.

  • Gerrymandering:

    The practice of manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor one political party, incumbent, or demographic group over another.

  • Negative Implications:

    • Undermines Democracy:

      Distorts the principle of "one person, one vote" by creating districts where votes for one party are effectively diluted, leading to unrepresentative outcomes.

    • Increased Polarization:

      Creates "safe" districts where incumbents face little competition, encouraging them to cater to their party's base rather than moderate views, leading to increased partisan gridlock.

    • Reduced Voter Turnout:

      Voters may feel their vote doesn't matter in heavily gerrymandered districts, leading to apathy and lower participation.

    • Dilution of Minority Representation:

      Can dilute the voting power of minority groups or concentrate them to reduce their influence in multiple districts.

  • Positive Implications (often argued by proponents, though controversial):

    • Protecting Minority Representation:

      In some cases, "affirmative gerrymandering" (e.g., creating majority-minority districts) has been used to ensure minority groups have a voice in Congress, though this is a contested positive.

    • Maintaining Local Community Cohesion:

      Potentially, districts can be drawn to keep communities of interest together, although this is often secondary to political goals.

    • Efficiency for Political Parties:

      Allows for more predictable election outcomes, which can lead to greater stability within party structures and legislative decision-making (from a party-centric view).

TOPIC 4.7: FORMS OF GOVERNANCE

Learning Objective

• Define federal and unitary states.

• Explain how these systems affect spatial organization.

Essential Knowledge

• Forms of Governance:

  • Unitary States tend to feature a centralized form of governance which often leads to a top-down approach in political decision-making.

  • Federal States exhibit a decentralized form of governance with power distributed across various levels or regions.

Classification of States

• Which of the discussed countries is a unitary state and which is a federal state? Explain the reasoning.

  • Unitary State Examples:

    France, Japan, China, United Kingdom.

  • Reasoning:

    Power is highly centralized in the national government. Local governments exist but derive all power from the central authority and implement national policies. Decision-making is typically top-down.

  • Federal State Examples:

    United States, Canada, Germany, India, Russia, Brazil.

  • Reasoning:

    Power is divided and shared between a central national government and regional or provincial/state governments. Both levels of government have distinct powers, often codified in a constitution, allowing for local autonomy in certain matters.

• When is a federal state a more efficient form of governance? Provide an example to illustrate.

  • Efficiency:

    A federal state is often more efficient in large, diverse countries where different regions have distinct cultural, economic, or linguistic needs. It allows for localized decision-making and policies tailored to specific regions, potentially responding better to local issues than a distant central government.

  • Example:

    India, with its vast population, numerous languages (over $20$ official languages), and varied cultures and economies, benefits from a federal system. States like Maharashtra or Uttar Pradesh can implement policies regarding agriculture, education, or local law enforcement that are specific to their regional contexts, rather than a single, uniform policy from Delhi that might not suit all regions. This allows for greater responsiveness and reduces the potential for widespread dissent that might arise from a highly centralized system.

• When is a unitary system more efficient in governance? Support with an example.

  • Efficiency:

    A unitary system can be more efficient in smaller, more ethnically and culturally homogeneous countries. It allows for quicker decision-making, uniform laws and policies across the entire territory, and a clearer chain of command. It avoids conflicts of jurisdiction that can arise in federal systems.

  • Example:

    Japan, a relatively homogeneous island nation, operates efficiently as a unitary state. Policies set by the central government in Tokyo (e.g., on education, infrastructure development, national defense) can be implemented uniformly across all prefectures without significant regional legislative hurdles, leading to consistent national development and streamlined administration.

TOPIC 4.8: DEFINING DEVOLUTIONARY FACTORS

Learning Objective

• Define factors that can lead to the devolution of states.

Essential Knowledge

• Factors leading to devolution include:

  • Division by physical geography

  • Ethnic separatism

  • Ethnic cleansing

  • Terrorism

  • Economic problems

  • Social problems

  • Irredentism

Definitions and Examples

• Define and give an example for each term:

  • Irredentism

    • Definition:

      A political movement or policy advocating the recovery of territory culturally or historically related to one's nation but now subject to a foreign government. It often involves claims to land where a co-ethnic population resides across an international border.

    • Example:

      Russia's annexation of Crimea in $2014$, claiming it was historically Russian territory and home to a Russian-speaking majority. Another historical example is Nazi Germany's claim to the Sudetenland (part of Czechoslovakia) due to its German-speaking population.

  • Redlining

    • Definition:

      A discriminatory practice by which banks, insurance companies, etc., refused or limited loans, mortgages, or insurance within specific geographic areas, especially inner-city neighborhoods, regardless of an applicant's creditworthiness. This practice historically targeted areas inhabited by racial or ethnic minority groups, leading to disinvestment and perpetuating inequality.

    • Example:

      In the mid-$20$th century U.S., maps were created with red lines around Black neighborhoods, signaling to lenders that these areas were "risky" for investment. This led to a lack of investment in these communities, housing deterioration, and limited access to capital for residents, contributing to wealth disparities.

  • Terrorism

    • Definition:

      The unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political, religious, or ideological aims. It is often employed by non-state actors to achieve goals through fear and coercion.

    • Example:

      The $9/11$ attacks in the United States by Al-Qaeda, targeting symbols of American economic and military power to achieve political objectives related to U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East.

  • Separatism

    • Definition:

      The advocacy or practice of separation of a certain group of people from a larger body on the basis of ethnicity, religion, or gender. It often involves a desire for political independence or greater autonomy.

    • Example:

      The Basque Country in Spain, where a distinct ethnic group (Basques) has historically sought greater autonomy or full independence from the Spanish central government, sometimes leading to political and less frequently, violent movements. The referendums for independence in Catalonia, Spain, and Quebec, Canada, are other examples.

  • Ethnic Cleansing

    • Definition:

      The systematic forced removal of ethnic or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, with the intent of making a region ethnically homogeneous. It often involves violence, intimidation, and the destruction of cultural heritage.

    • Example:

      The Bosnian War in the $1990$s, where Bosnian Serbs systematically sought to remove Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) and Croats from territories they claimed, involving massacres, forced displacement, and destruction of towns and villages.

Map Analysis

• Analyze a provided map for ongoing processes and their geographic origins.

• Define devolution and provide examples from at least two different continents.

  • Devolution:

    The transfer of power from a central government to subnational political units, such as regional or local governments. While it involves delegating authority, the central government usually retains ultimate sovereignty. It can occur due to political, economic, or ethnic pressures, or to improve governance by bringing decision-making closer to the people.

  • Examples:

    • Europe (United Kingdom):

      The UK has devolved powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Each region has its own parliament/assembly with authority over matters such as education, health, and local administration, while the central government in Westminster retains control over defense, foreign policy, and macroeconomics.

    • North America (Canada):

      Canada operates as a federal state, which inherently involves power distribution, but within its provinces, there are varying degrees of autonomy. For instance, Quebec has unique linguistic and cultural policies that reflect its distinct Francophone identity, effectively wielding significant devolved power over areas like language and civil law compared to other provinces. While Canada is a federation, regional demands for greater autonomy can be seen as a form of “devolutionary” pressure.

    • Africa (Nigeria):

      Nigeria is a federal republic, but it also experiences calls for greater regional control. The creation of states and local government areas has often been a response to ethnic and regional demands for more localized governance and resource control, particularly concerning oil wealth. Different regions assert distinct legal and social systems (e.g., Sharia law in some northern states), reflecting a form of devolved power.

TOPIC 4.9: CHALLENGES TO SOVEREIGNTY

Learning Objective

• Explain how political, economic, cultural, and technological changes challenge state sovereignty.

Essential Knowledge

• Devolution can manifest when states fragment into autonomous regions, subnational political-territorial units (such as those within Spain, Belgium, Canada, and Nigeria), or when states disintegrate (as seen in Eritrea, South Sudan, East Timor, and former Soviet states).

• Communication technology has a notable role in facilitating devolution, supranationalism, and democratization.

• Global efforts to manage transnational challenges, such as environmental issues and economic agreements, promote supranationalism.

• Supranational organizations (e.g.:

  • United Nations (UN)

  • North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

  • European Union (EU)

  • Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

  • Arctic Council

  • African Union) may challenge national sovereignty by limiting member states' economic and political actions.

Supranational Organizations

TOPIC 4.10: CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTRIPETAL FORCES

Learning Objective

• Explain how the concepts of centrifugal and centripetal forces apply at the state scale.

Essential Knowledge

• Centrifugal forces may lead to:

  • Failed states

  • Uneven development

  • Stateless nations

  • Ethnic nationalist movements

• Centripetal forces can lead to:

  • Ethnonationalism

  • More equitable infrastructure development

  • Increased cultural cohesion.

Map and Events Analysis

• Use provided maps to explain how centrifugal and centripetal forces have influenced specific regions.

• Provide examples from recent world events depicting these forces at work, particularly in the United States.

  • Centrifugal Forces (leading to division/disunity):

    • United States:

    • Political Polarization:

      Deepening partisan divides (e.g., between Republicans and Democrats) on issues like abortion, gun control, healthcare, and climate change, leading to legislative gridlock and social fragmentation.

    • Regional Economic Disparities:

      Uneven economic development between urban and rural areas, or between different states, fueling resentment and calls for different federal policies or even regional autonomy (e.g., "blue states" vs. "red states" economic and cultural gaps).

    • Ethnic and Racial Tensions:

      Ongoing debates and social movements (e.g., Black Lives Matter, anti-immigrant sentiment) highlight persistent racial inequalities and divisions within American society.

    • Disinformation and Social Media:

      Spread of misinformation and conspiracy theories exacerbates distrust in institutions and fuels social division.

    • Global Examples:

    • Brexit:

      The United Kingdom's departure from the European Union, driven by concerns over sovereignty, immigration, and economic policy, representing a powerful centrifugal force against supranational integration.

    • Separatist Movements:

      Catalan independence movement in Spain, Kurdish aspirations for statehood in the Middle East, ongoing tensions in former Soviet states like Ukraine.

  • Centripetal Forces (leading to unity/cohesion):

    • United States:

    • National Response to Crises:

      Unified national response and patriotism following events like the $9/11$ attacks or major natural disasters, temporarily overriding political differences.

    • Shared National Identity Symbols:

      Adherence to national symbols (flag, anthem), holidays (e.g., July $4$th), and cultural events (Super Bowl, Olympic victories) that foster a sense of shared American identity.

    • Infrastructure Projects:

      Large-scale infrastructure investments (e.g., national highway system, broadband expansion) can connect diverse regions and facilitate economic integration, fostering national unity.

    • Constitutional Framework:

      The enduring principles of the U.S. Constitution and rule of law provide a foundational framework that binds diverse states and populations together despite differences.

    • Global Examples:

    • European Union Initiatives:

      Despite Brexit, the EU continues to pursue policies like the Green Deal, common defense initiatives, and economic recovery funds, which aim to strengthen integration and shared identity among member states.

    • International Sports Events:

      Events like the FIFA World Cup or the Olympic Games can temporarily unite diverse populations within a country under a common national pride.

    • Development of