UPDATED MENTAL HEALTH (Oxford AQA International GCSE Psychology)
Mental Health
Characteristics of Good Mental Health
A person with good mental health is not simply free from mental illness. They are able to:
Manage difficult emotions without becoming overwhelmed
Maintain positive relationships
Cope with everyday stress
Deal effectively with disappointments and challenges
Make decisions confidently
Function effectively in society
Engage positively with other people
Adapt to change and setbacks
Mental Health Problems
Definition
Mental health problems affect:
Thoughts
Feelings
Behaviour
Examples include:
OCD
PTSD
Depression
Anxiety disorders
Schizophrenia
Bipolar disorder
Diagnosis
Mental health disorders are diagnosed using classification systems:
ICD (International Classification of Diseases)
DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)
These systems provide standardised criteria for diagnosis.
Cultural and Global Factors in Mental Health
Cultural Influences
Different cultures view mental health differently.
In some cultures:
Mental illness reflects on the whole family
Individuals may be hidden from society
Family members provide care
Beliefs about causes affect treatment:
Biological explanations → medication
Spiritual explanations → prayer, rituals, exorcisms
Attitudes towards discussing mental health vary:
Some cultures encourage therapy and support groups
Others see mental illness as shameful
Global Trends
Mental health diagnoses are increasing worldwide
Depression rates appear to be increasing
Some disorders such as schizophrenia remain relatively stable
Possible reasons:
Improved awareness
Better diagnostic systems
Increased access to healthcare
Reduced stigma
Changes in diagnostic criteria
Challenges of Modern Living
Urban Living
Living in highly populated areas may increase stress.
Research suggests:
City dwellers show greater amygdala activity
The amygdala is involved in fear and threat processing
Consequences may include:
Increased anxiety
Greater stress responses
Loneliness
Loneliness is linked to:
Depression
Anxiety
Poor wellbeing
Possible causes:
Living alone
Family breakdown
Increased life expectancy
Reduced social contact
Effects:
Social isolation
Increased mental health problems
Reducing Social Stigma
Stigma
Stigma refers to negative attitudes towards mental illness.
Consequences:
Social isolation
Discrimination
Reduced help-seeking behaviour
Improvements
Campaigns and public awareness have improved attitudes.
Benefits:
More people seek treatment
Greater understanding of mental illness
Reduced discrimination
Effects of Mental Health Problems
Effects on Daily Life
Individuals may experience:
Low energy
Poor concentration
Sleep problems
Difficulty completing daily tasks
Education and employment may suffer.
Effects on Physical Health
Mental health problems may lead to:
Reduced exercise
Poor diet
Substance misuse
Poor adherence to medication
Effects on Relationships
Mental health problems can:
Cause family stress
Damage relationships
Increase conflict
Create caring responsibilities
Effects on Society
Mental health problems can contribute to:
Increased healthcare costs
Reduced productivity
Greater social care needs
OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD)
Definition
OCD is a mental health disorder involving:
Obsessions
Compulsions
Obsessions
Obsessions are:
Intrusive thoughts
Unwanted thoughts
Repetitive thoughts
Distressing thoughts
Examples:
Fear of contamination
Fear of harm
Need for symmetry
Intrusive violent thoughts
Compulsions
Compulsions are repetitive behaviours or mental acts performed to reduce anxiety.
Examples:
Hand washing
Checking locks
Counting
Repeating actions
Arranging objects
The OCD Cycle
Obsession occurs
Anxiety increases
Compulsion performed
Temporary relief experienced
Obsession returns
Cycle repeats
Example:
Obsession:
"My hands are contaminated."
Compulsion:
Repeated hand washing.
Diagnosing OCD
Diagnosis involves:
Obsessions and/or compulsions
Symptoms present most days for at least two weeks
Significant distress
Interference with daily life
Recognition that thoughts are their own
Biological Explanation of OCD
Serotonin
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in:
Mood
Behaviour regulation
Anxiety control
Low serotonin levels may contribute to OCD symptoms.
Brain Structures
Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC)
Responsible for:
Decision making
Evaluating behaviour
Caudate Nucleus
Responsible for:
Habit formation
Control of repetitive behaviours
Faulty communication between these areas may lead to obsessions and compulsions.
Cognitive Explanation of OCD
OCD results from faulty thinking patterns.
Overestimation of Danger
Individuals believe situations are more threatening than they really are.
Thought-Action Fusion
Individuals believe:
Thinking something is similar to doing it
Example:
Thinking about harming someone feels as bad as actually harming them.
Excessive Responsibility
Individuals believe they are personally responsible for preventing harm.
TREATMENT OF OCD
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
CBT aims to:
Identify irrational thoughts
Challenge faulty beliefs
Replace negative thinking
Reduce compulsive behaviour
Exposure and Response Prevention (ERP)
Exposure
Patient is exposed to an anxiety-triggering stimulus.
Example:
Touching a contaminated object
Response Prevention
Patient is prevented from performing the compulsion.
Example:
Not washing hands
Habituation
Initially:
Anxiety increases
Over time:
Anxiety naturally decreases
Learning Outcome
The patient learns:
The feared outcome does not occur
Anxiety can reduce without compulsions
Kearns (2010)
Aim
To investigate whether CBT is effective in treating OCD.
Sample
Patients diagnosed with OCD.
Method
Clinical study.
Procedure
Patients received CBT
Included Exposure and Response Prevention
Symptoms measured before and after treatment
Results
Significant reduction in OCD symptoms
Improved functioning
Conclusion
CBT is an effective treatment for OCD.
Strengths
Real-world application
High ecological validity
Weaknesses
No control group
Cannot establish causation
POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER (PTSD)
Definition
PTSD is a mental health disorder that can develop after exposure to a traumatic event.
Examples:
War
Assault
Serious accidents
Natural disasters
Symptoms of PTSD
Re-experiencing
Flashbacks
Nightmares
Intrusive memories
Hyperarousal
Anxiety
Irritability
Difficulty sleeping
Increased alertness
Avoidance
Avoiding reminders of trauma
Avoiding places or situations linked to the event
Diagnosing PTSD
Symptoms:
Last longer than one month
Cause significant distress
Affect daily functioning
DUAL REPRESENTATION THEORY
Main Idea
Traumatic memories are stored in two memory systems.
VAM – Verbally Accessible Memory
Characteristics:
Conscious
Can be described verbally
Under voluntary control
Example:
Telling someone about the traumatic event
SAM – Situationally Accessible Memory
Characteristics:
Unconscious
Difficult to describe
Triggered automatically
Triggers:
Sounds
Smells
Sights
Situations
Why PTSD Occurs
Trauma is not properly processed into VAM.
Instead:
Much of the memory remains in SAM
Result:
Flashbacks occur
Memories return involuntarily
Emotional reactions are intense
TREATMENT OF PTSD
Prolonged Exposure Therapy
Purpose:
Help patients confront traumatic memories
Reduce avoidance
Reduce anxiety
Imaginal Exposure
Patient repeatedly recalls and describes the trauma.
Purpose:
Process the memory consciously
In Vivo Exposure
Patient confronts real-life trauma reminders.
Purpose:
Reduce fear associated with triggers
How It Works
Repeated exposure leads to:
Reduced fear response
Habituation
According to Dual Representation Theory:
Memories become more integrated into VAM
Less dependent on SAM
Result:
Fewer flashbacks
Better control over memories
Eftekhari (2013)
Aim
To investigate the effectiveness of Prolonged Exposure Therapy for PTSD.
Sample
Patients diagnosed with PTSD.
Method
Clinical study.
Procedure
Patients repeatedly revisited traumatic memories
Symptoms measured over time
Results
Significant reduction in PTSD symptoms
Conclusion
Prolonged Exposure Therapy is effective in treating PTSD.
Strengths
Real-world application
Longitudinal evidence
Weaknesses
Can be distressing
No control group
Low internal validity