Introductory Psychology Notes

What is Psychology?

  • Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
  • Psychologists study the human experience, including:
    • Basic workings of the human brain
    • Consciousness
    • Memory
    • Language
    • Reasoning
    • Personality
    • Mental health

History of Psychology

  • Structuralism: Understanding the conscious experience through introspection.
    • Wilhelm Wundt
  • Functionalism: Focused on how mental activities helped an organism adapt to its environment.
    • William James
  • Psychoanalytic Theory: Focuses on the role of the unconscious in affecting conscious behavior.
    • Sigmund Freud
  • Gestalt Psychology: Focuses on humans as a whole rather than individual parts.
    • Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler
  • Behaviorism: Focuses on observing and controlling behavior.
    • Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
  • Humanism: Emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans.
    • Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Wilhelm Wundt (Structuralism)

  • Credited as one of the founders of psychology.
  • Created the first laboratory for psychological research.
  • Emphasized structuralism.
  • Focused on understanding the structure and characteristics of the mind through introspection.
  • Introspection: Process by which someone examines their own conscious experience to break it into its component parts.

William James (Functionalism)

  • Considered the first American psychologist.
  • Drew from the functionality of cognitive processes, establishing functionalism.
  • Functionalism: Emphasized how mental activities contributed to basic environmental survival.

Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytic Theory)

  • Founded Psychoanalytic theory, a perspective which dominated clinical psychology for many decades.
  • Studied "hysteria" and neurosis.
  • Theorized that many of his patients’ problems arose from the unconscious mind.
  • Believed that one way the unconscious mind could be accessed was through dream analysis.
  • Psychoanalytic theory focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious and early childhood experiences.

Gestalt Psychology

  • Kohler, Koffka and Wertheimer were German psychologists who immigrated to the U.S. to escape Nazi Germany.
  • Gestalt means "Whole"
  • Based on the idea that although a sensory experience can be broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception.
  • Ideas of Gestalt continue to influence research on sensation and perception.

Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning)

  • Discovered the concept of classical conditioning.
  • Studied conditioned reflexes in which an animal produced a reflex (unconscious) response to a stimulus (salivating in the presence of food).
  • Over time, the animal was conditioned to produce the response to a different stimulus (salivating to the sound of a bell) that the experimenter associated with the original stimulus (Food and bell became associated).

John B. Watson (Behaviorism)

  • Known as the father of behaviorism within psychology.
  • Believed that objective analysis of the mind was impossible.
  • Instead, he focused on observable behavior and ways to bring that behavior under control.
  • Today, behaviorism is used in behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy.

B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning)

  • Concentrated on how behavior was affected by its consequences.
  • Studied the principles of modifying behavior through reinforcement and punishment which he saw as major factors in driving behavior (operant conditioning).

Abraham Maslow (Humanism)

  • Proposed a hierarchy of human needs in motivating behavior.
  • Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs (e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior.

Carl Rogers (Humanism)

  • Developed a client-centered therapy method that has been influential in clinical settings.
  • Client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a lead role in the therapy session.
  • Rogers believed therapists need:
    • unconditional positive regard
    • genuineness
    • empathy

The Cognitive Revolution

  • By the 1950’s, new disciplinary perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were emerging.
  • The mind became the new focus of scientific inquiry.
  • Noam Chomsky was very influential in beginning the cognitive revolution.
  • He believed psychology needed to incorporate mental functioning into its focus in order to fully understand human behavior.

Contemporary Psychology

  • Branches of psychology:
    • Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology
    • Sensation and Perception
    • Cognitive Psychology
    • Developmental Psychology
    • Personality Psychology
    • Social Psychology
    • Health Psychology
    • Industrial-Organizational Psychology
    • Sports and Exercise Psychology
    • Clinical Psychology
    • Forensic Psychology

Biopsychology

  • Biological psychologists study how the structure and function of the nervous system generate behavior.
  • Research can include:
    • Sensory and motor systems
    • Sleep
    • Drug use and abuse
    • Ingestive behavior
    • Reproductive behavior
    • Neurodevelopment
    • Plasticity of the nervous system
    • Biological correlates of psychological disorders

Sensation and Perception

  • This area of study focuses on both physiological aspects of sensory systems and the psychological experience of sensory information.
  • Sensation: Sensory information (sights, sounds, touch, smell).
  • Perception: Experience of the world which is influenced by where we focus our attention, our previous experiences, and our cultural backgrounds.

Cognitive Psychology

  • Branch of psychology that focuses on cognition and thoughts and their relationship to our experiences and our actions.
    • Attention
    • Problem solving
    • Language
    • Memory

Developmental Psychology

  • Developmental psychology studies the physical and mental attributes of aging and maturation.
  • This can include various skills that are acquired throughout growth.
    • Moral Reasoning
    • Cognitive Skills
    • Social Skills
  • Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive ability that occur as we move from infancy to adulthood.

Personality Psychology

  • Focuses on behaviors and thought patterns that are unique to each individual.
  • Studies in this field include conscious and unconscious thinking and identifying personality traits.
  • FIVE FACTOR MODEL

Social Psychology

  • How individuals interact and relate with others and how such interactions can affect behavior.
    • Prejudice
    • Attraction
    • Interpersonal conflicts
    • Obedience
  • Stanley Milgram’s research demonstrated just how far people will go in obeying orders from an authority figure.

Health Psychology

  • Branch that focuses on how individual health is directly related or affected by biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.
  • The biopsychosocial model suggests that health/illness is determined by an interaction of these three factors.

Clinical Psychology

  • Focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior.
  • Study involves clinical therapy and counseling.
  • Cognitive-behavioral therapists take cognitive processes and behaviors into account when providing psychotherapy. This is one of several strategies that may be used by practicing clinical psychologists.

Industrial-Organizational Psychology

  • Branch that applies psychological theories, principles and research to industrial and organizational settings.
  • Involves issues related to personnel management, organizational structure and workplace environment.

Sports & Exercise Psychology

  • Focus on psychological aspects regarding sports and physical performance.
  • Study includes motivation, performance related anxiety, and general mental well being.

Forensic Psychology

  • Branch of psychology dealing with justice system.
  • Tasks of Forensic Psychologists include assessment of individuals' mental competency to stand in trial, sentencing and treatment suggestions, and advisement regarding eyewitness testimonies.
  • This field of psychology requires a strong understanding of the legal system.

Careers in Psychology

  • Most careers in psychology require a PhD or a Masters degree.
  • A few career options:
    • Teaching
    • Research
    • Clinical psychologist
    • Counseling psychologist
    • Social Work
    • Corporate and Marketing jobs

Employment in Different Sectors

Percentage of 2009 Psychology Doctorates Employed in Different Sectors:

  • University: 26%26\%
  • Hospital or health service: 25%25\%
  • Government/VA medical center: 16%16\%
  • Business or nonprofit: 10%10\%
  • Other educational institutions: 8%8\%
  • Medical school: 6%6\%
  • Independent practice: 6%6\%