Unit 2 — Period 2 Review: 1607–1754

Topic 2.1 Contextualizing period 2

• Learning Objective: Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754.

• Timeframe context:

  • Period 2 in the Americas (1491–1607) was dominated by European exploration, especially Spanish expansion.

  • From 1607–1754, exploration gave way to expanding colonization by several European powers.

• Major colonial powers in North America:

  • Spanish, French, Dutch, and British established colonies.

  • The British dominated from Canada to the Caribbean and established 13 colonies along the Atlantic coast.

• Demographics and purpose:

  • English colonies provided profitable trade and home to diverse Native American, European, and African populations.

  • From the first permanent English settlement in 1607 to the start of decisive European contests (begins in 1756), colonies evolved from survival to societies of farms, plantations, towns, and cities.

• European influence and governance:

  • Settlers brought different cultures, economic plans, and governance ideas.

  • Across groups, European powers sought to dominate native inhabitants, though approaches varied by colony.

• Early Settlements and patterns:

  • Spanish/Portuguese first settled Central and South America; Spanish moved into North America over time.

  • French, Dutch, and British settled along the Atlantic coast and moved westward, creating various colonial systems and relationships with Native Americans.

  • First successful British colonies: Jamestown (1607) and Plymouth (early 1620s).

  • By mid-1700s, 13 colonies stretched from Maine to Georgia and developed varied economic systems influenced by environment and settlement patterns.

• Economic foundations and labor:

  • Important products: tobacco, timber, rice (regional variations).

  • Transatlantic trade tied colonies to Great Britain, forging bonds but also friction as colonial autonomy grew.

• Trade dynamics and conflict:

  • Trade was central to early contact with Native Americans (iron tools, guns, food supply).

  • British and French conflicts over land and resources increased competition and war between colonists and Native Americans.

• Labor sources and slavery:

  • Early labor: Native American enslaved labor attempted but failed due to escape and resistance.

  • Indentured servitude became common (usually 4–7 years); later, Africans were imported as enslaved laborers in larger numbers.

• Connections and implications:

  • The period set the stage for colonial societies that mirrored and varied from British society.

  • Growth of trade, religious ties, and language facilitated connections with Britain but also sowed seeds of resistance.

Topic 2.2 European colonization in North America

• Learning Objective: Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.

• Environmental and social context:

  • Migration to the Americas in the 17th century and early 18th century was shaped by environment and had lasting ecological impacts.

  • Settlers, Native Americans, and enslaved Africans formed a society unlike any prior in the Americas.

• Primary motivations for settlement in the 17th century:

  • Wealth, spread of Christianity, and escape from persecution.

• Regions and key colonies:

  • Spanish Colonies:

  • Florida: Juan Ponce de Leon claimed lands for Spain in 1513.

  • St. Augustine established in 1565 (oldest European-founded city in mainland U.S.).

  • Spanish faced limited mineral resources, resistance from American Indians, and disease; a slow pace of colonization.

  • New Mexico and Arizona:

  • Spanish arrived around 1598; Santa Fe established as capital in 1610.

  • Texas:

  • Spanish settlements established between Florida and New Mexico; resistance to French efforts along the lower Mississippi.

  • California:

  • Russian exploration from Alaska; Spanish established San Diego in 1769; Franciscans and Junípero Serra established coastal missions by 1784.

  • French Colonies:

  • Men dominated settlements; fur trade was central; intermarriage with American Indians occurred; rivers were crucial for trade.

  • Quebec founded on the St. Lawrence by Samuel de Champlain in 1608 (Father of New France).

  • 1673: Joliet and Marquette explored upper Mississippi; 1682–1689: La Salle explored Mississippi basin and named Louisiana.

  • By 1718, French established New Orleans as a major trade hub at the mouth of the Mississippi.

  • Dutch Colonies:

  • 1609: Henry Hudson explored the Hudson River; Dutch West India Company governed the region; New Amsterdam (later New York) founded.

  • Dutch trading posts near coasts and rivers; less intermarriage with Native Americans than the French.

  • British Colonies:

  • Early 1600s: England leveraged joint-stock companies; settlers included families and women; emphasis on farming.

  • English colonists tended to claim Native American land and were less likely to intermarry with Native peoples.

• Labor and social structures:

  • Indentured servants played a major role in the early labor force in several colonies.

  • Slavery grew in importance, with Africa providing enslaved labor; enslaved populations increased over time.

  • The Atlantic slave trade linked to European powers and impacted labor systems in the colonies.

• Political and religious dynamics:

  • England’s national religious conflicts and religious dissent shaped the founding of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, and other colonies.

  • Puritan influence in New England; more religiously tolerant colonies emerged later (Rhode Island, Connecticut) due to dissenters.

• Quick decision points (analysis):

  • The excerpt demonstrates how colonists’ visions for Virginia varied (enrichment, social replication, or expansion of empire).

  • Indentured servitude became dominant labor option before enslaved Africans became central in the late 17th century.

Topic 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies

• Learning Objective: Explain how environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies from 1607 to 1754.

• Charter types and colony governance:

  • Corporate colonies: Jamestown and early settlements run by joint-stock companies.

  • Royal colonies: Under direct rule of the king (e.g., Virginia after 1624).

  • Proprietary colonies: Under ownership by individuals granted charters (e.g., Maryland, Pennsylvania).

• Cultural and political differences by region:

  • The British emphasized free farming and representative government, but colonists developed their own political institutions.

  • Early English settlements (Virginia and Massachusetts) differed: Jamestown aimed at profit; Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay were driven by religious motivations.

• Early English settlements and key colonies:

  • Jamestown (1607): chartered by King James I to the Virginia Company; early problems due to swampy location and lack of labor; Captain John Smith leadership; tobacco developed by John Rolfe and Pocahontas; headright system offered 50 acres to attract settlers; shift from indentured servants to enslaved Africans later in the 17th century; 1624: royal takeover and Virginia becomes a royal colony.

  • Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay: Pilgrims ( Separatists) settled Plymouth in 1620 aboard the Mayflower; founded by Puritans seeking religious freedom; Mayflower Compact established self-government; Massachusetts Bay Colony founded in 1630 under John Winthrop; Great Migration of Puritans in the 1630s; mix of towns and farms; heavy religious governance but varied by town.

  • Maryland: 1632 charter to Lord Baltimore; Act of Toleration (1649) for religious tolerance toward Christians but protected only those who denied the divinity of Jesus; later Protestant revolt ended toleration; Catholic minority leadership; economics similar to Virginia.

  • The Carolinas and Georgia (Restoration Colonies): Carolinas granted to eight lord proprietors in 1663; Georgia (1732) established as a philanthropic colony by James Oglethorpe to defend against Spanish Florida and to provide a debtors’ haven; Savannah founded 1733; initially regulated against rum and slavery; later became royal.

  • The Middle Colonies: New York (Dutch then English control 1664) and New Jersey (split from NY 1664, later united 1702); Pennsylvania (the Holy Experiment) founded by William Penn with liberal frames (Frame of Government 1682–1683; Charter of Liberties 1701) promoting representative government and freedom of worship; Delaware separated from Pennsylvania in 1702.

  • New England: Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay; Rhode Island and Connecticut formed by dissenters seeking religious liberty and political autonomy; town meetings and representative assemblies; universal male church membership in some areas extended limited political rights; religious uniformity remained strong in some colonies.

• Social and economic characteristics by region:

  • New England: mixed economy of farming, trade, shipbuilding; education emphasis; town meetings; strong religious influence; slower population growth relative to the South.

  • Middle Colonies: grain (wheat, corn), fur trade, iron-making; diverse population (English, Germans, Dutch, Swedes, etc.); tolerant religious environment; growth of cities like Philadelphia and New York.

  • Southern Colonies: tobacco, rice, indigo; plantation economy; slavery became central; fewer urban centers; broad river-based export systems; North Carolina less slave-intensive than South Carolina and Georgia.

• Politics and rights:

  • Early assemblies (e.g., Virginia House of Burgesses, 1619) and the Mayflower Compact as early governance experiments.

  • Town meetings in New England; representative government in several colonies, but voting often limited to white male property owners.

  • Differences in toleration and religious liberty shaped regional governance (Rhode Island and Pennsylvania more tolerant than others).

• The big picture:

  • The colonies developed three general colonial types (corporate, royal, proprietary) with distinct patterns of settlement, economy, religion, and governance, yet shared some common features like English legal traditions, mercantilist economic links to Britain, and evolving forms of self-government.

Topic 2.4 Transatlantic trade

• Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time.

• Core idea: Transatlantic trade and mercantilist policies strengthened European powers and linked colonial economies to the metropolitan center.

• Triangular Trade pattern:

  • Stage 1: New England port ships rum to West Africa.

  • Stage 2: Enslaved Africans transported via the Middle Passage to the West Indies; sugarcane traded in the Caribbean for rum.

  • Stage 3: Sugar in the West Indies sold in New England to manufacture more rum, continuing the cycle.

  • Variations existed with stops in England or Spain.

• Key actors and shifts:

  • 17th century: Royal African Company (RAC) monopolized enslaved-African trade in English colonies.

  • Late 17th century: RAC monopoly ended; New England merchants entered the slave trade.

• Mercantilism and the empire:

  • Mercantilism: national wealth measured by exported value over imports; colonies exist to enrich the parent country by providing raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.

  • Navigation Acts (1650–1673) established three rules:

  • Trade to and from colonies could be carried only by English/colonial ships with English/colonial crews.

  • All non-perishable goods imported into the colonies had to pass through English ports.

  • Enumerated goods (e.g., tobacco, later expanded) could only be exported to England.

• Colonial economic impact:

  • Benefits: shipbuilding in New England; tobacco monopoly in England for Chesapeake crops; English military protection.

  • Drawbacks: limited manufacturing; colonists paid high prices for imported English goods; Chesapeake farmers received low prices for crops due to England's price controls.

  • Ongoing trade with Native Americans for furs and food continued, facilitating cultural exchange and intermarriage in some frontier areas (e.g., Pocahontas and John Rolfe).

• Enforcement and colonial reaction:

  • England often practiced salutary neglect, relaxing enforcement due to distance and other crises (Civil War, wars with France).

  • Enforcement varied over time; smuggling became a common colonial practice, especially in New England.

  • The Dominion of New England (1686–1689) attempted to centralize authority under Sir Edmund Andros; Glorious Revolution (1688) ended the dominion and restored separate charters.

• Long-term impact:

  • Trade ties reinforced economic and cultural links with Britain but sowed seeds of distrust and resistance to regulation, contributing to rising colonial identity and eventual calls for greater autonomy.

• Review questions (example):

  • Molasses Act (1733) and its aim to regulate colonial trade; its relation to mercantilism and colonial smuggling.

  • Short-answer prompts asking for benefits, disadvantages, and colonial responses under British mercantilism.

Topic 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans

• Learning Objective: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time.

• Initial European attitudes and strategies:

  • Europeans viewed Native Americans as inferior or as potential allies; used Native labor or pushed them off land when convenient.

  • Alliances formed based on competition between European powers and tribal rivalries; Native American tribes sometimes allied with one side to resist the other.

• Early Native American responses to European contact:

  • Survived diseases, resisted encroachment with diplomacy or force, and sometimes formed alliances (e.g., Mahican with the Dutch against Mohawk) to counter outside threats.

• Conflicts and confederations:

  • New England Confederation (1643) formed by Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven for mutual defense and to manage disputes with Native Americans; limited powers; dissolved by 1684 due to internal rivalries and centralization.

  • Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War) (1675–1676): Wampanoag leader Metacom united tribes to resist colonial encroachment; many towns attacked; colonial victory reinforced imperial expansion but caused long-term trauma and population decline among Native groups.

  • Virginia conflict dynamics: Sir William Berkeley’s governance (1641–1652; 1660–1677) and Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) highlighted frontier tensions between large planters and western farmers; episodes of violence against Native villages occurred.

• European domination and Pueblo Revolt:

  • Spanish colonization used encomienda labor systems and aggressive religious conversion; Pueblo Revolt of 1680 united Pueblo tribes against Spanish rule; Spaniards briefly expelled from Santa Fe until reestablished control in 1692, but with more accommodation towards Native cultures.

• Broader themes and implications:

  • The relationship between Europeans and Native Americans evolved from coexistence and alliance to conquest and coercive governance.

  • Native American resistance and adaptation shaped colonial policies, frontier conflict, and the development of frontier diplomacy.

Topic 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies

• Learning Objectives:

  • Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions.

  • Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery.

• Labor needs and labor systems:

  • Agriculture created high labor demand; Native Americans were not reliable long-term labor due to escape and disease; indentured servants initially provided labor; as populations grew, enslaved Africans became more central.

  • Headright system in Virginia offered 50 acres to attract settlers and those who paid for passage; this system primarily benefited landowners who sponsored indentured servants.

• The institution of slavery:

  • 1619: Purchase of approximately 25 African indentured servants in Virginia; these first Africans were not life-long enslaved, and their children were free at first.

  • By the late 1660s, Virginia’s laws began to establish life-long bondage for Africans and their offspring; by the early 18th century, enslaved status and legal restrictions multiplied across all colonies.

  • The vast majority of enslaved people were in the southern colonies working on tobacco, rice, and indigo plantations; very small numbers in the Northern colonies (where labor demand was less intense).

  • By 1750, about half of Virginia’s population and two-thirds of South Carolina’s population were enslaved; enslaved Africans were the majority in South Carolina and Georgia by mid-18th century.

• Geography and regional distribution:

  • West Indian sugar islands had the largest enslaved populations; only a small percentage went to the North American colonies (about 5% to eventual 60% in some Southern colonies? Note: actual figure in text says about 5% of enslaved Africans delivered to British North America; the rest to Caribbean and South America).

• Legal framework and racism:

  • Enslavement became codified via laws in various colonies; social and legal structures gradually defined Black people as an inferior class, and slavery became a central institution in the Southern colonies.

  • In 1641 Massachusetts recognized enslavement of certain captives; 1661–1664 laws expanded perpetual bondage and inheritance of slavery; baptism did not protect against enslavement in some jurisdictions.

• Resistance and adaptation:

  • Enslaved people resisted through family preservation, religion, cultural retention, and acts of resistance (hunger strikes, breaking tools, escape, etc.).

  • Enslaved Africans maintained family ties and cultural practices amid the slave regime; some adopted Christianity but preserved African cultural elements.

• Responses by colonists to slavery:

  • White colonists passed laws to control enslaved populations, including life-long status, inheritance of bondage, and limitations on legal rights.

  • Some groups (e.g., Quakers) questioned slavery and voiced abolitionist sentiments; Mennonite communities in 1688 also opposed slavery in their own statements.

Topic 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture

• Learning Objectives:

  • Explain how migration and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to American culture.

  • Explain how European governance and colonial interests influenced colonial self-perception and relationship with Britain.

• Population and migration trends:

  • 1701 population: about $250{,}000$ (Europeans and Africans) along the Atlantic coast.

  • By 1775 population: about $2{,}500{,}000$; African American population grew dramatically from about $28{,}000$ in 1701 to $500{,}000$ in 1775.

  • Growth factors: large-scale immigration (roughly 1 million people) and high birth rates within colonial families.

• Ethnic and religious diversity:

  • Immigrants included Germans (Pennsylvania Dutch country), Scotch-Irish (frontier regions), French Huguenots, Dutch, Swedes, etc.

  • Enslaved Africans formed a significant portion of the population, especially in the South.

  • Native American populations interacted with settlers and formed alliances or endured displacement.

• Regions and social structures:

  • New England: Puritans and dissenters; strong town-based governance; emphasis on education; religious uniformity; maritime economy developing later.

  • Middle Colonies: mix of wheat and corn farming; diverse religious toleration; urban growth (Philadelphia, New York).

  • Southern Colonies: plantation economy; tobacco, rice, indigo; slavery central to economic system; more rural and dispersed communities.

• Religion and culture:

  • Mostly Protestant denominations across colonies; Rhode Island and Pennsylvania offered higher levels of religious toleration; Massachusetts held more orthodox Puritan governance.

  • The Great Awakening (1730s–1740s) spreads religious fervor; key figures: Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield; affected church membership, emotional expression, and challenged clerical authority.

• Education, science, and arts:

  • Early education: Puritan emphasis on literacy led to tax-supported schools in New England; other regions used church-sponsored or private education.

  • Colleges: Harvard (1636), William & Mary (1694), Yale (1701), College of Philadelphia (1765). The nonsectarian College of Philadelphia later became the University of Pennsylvania.

  • Science and letters: Benjamin Franklin’s science (electricity, bifocals, Franklin stove); Benjamin West and John Copley as prominent colonial painters; Phillis Wheatley as an enslaved poet.

• Economy and monetary system:

  • By 1750s, half of Britain’s world trade was with the American colonies; manufacturing was limited by mercantilist restraints; agriculture, forestry, and fishing dominated.

  • The money supply was limited; colonies relied on paper currency with risk of inflation; the monarchy reserved power to veto colonial laws that might harm merchants.

• Great Awakening and political implications:

  • The Great Awakening contributed to a democratizing effect in religious life by encouraging lay participation; it fostered questions about authority that would later influence political thought.

• Social structure and gender:

  • Family as the center of colonial life; women bore many children (often eight); women contributed to economic life but had limited legal/political rights; divorce existed but was rare.

  • Men could own property and participate in politics; husbands had broad authority in the home.

• Economic life by region (summary):

  • New England: subsistence farming; fishing, shipbuilding, lumber, rum; education and religious life were central.

  • Middle Colonies: breadbasket region; diversity in labor; early industrial activities (iron-making); urban growth.

  • Southern Colonies: plantations and slave-based economy; river trade; cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo); more rigid social hierarchy.

• Cultural and political life:

  • Liberty and opportunity existed more in practice than in Europe; tax-supported churches varied by colony; some places had established churches; others promoted toleration.

  • Early forms of local self-government (town meetings, assemblies) contrasted with royal oversight and proprietary control.

Topic 2.8 Comparisons in period 2

• Learning Objective: Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America.

• Key comparative framework:

  • Regions compared: New England, Middle Atlantic, Southern Colonies.

  • Commonalities: English origin; shared language; diverse immigrant influences; agricultural economies; early forms of self-rule; religious pluralism increasing over time.

  • Differences: climate and geography; economic bases; religious cultures; levels of religious toleration; political structures; urban vs rural development; role of slavery; education and culture.

• Comparison chart (highlights):

  • Population and groups:

  • New England: English, some other groups; Puritans dominate religious life; higher emphasis on town meetings; education-driven culture.

  • Middle Atlantic: German, Dutch, English, Scotch-Irish; religious toleration greater; urban centers develop; diverse economy (grain, iron, trade).

  • Southern Colonies: English, African American slave majority in some areas; Anglican majority; plantation-driven economy.

  • Religion:

  • New England: Puritanism; some heterodoxy but tight church-state connections; Rhode Island and Connecticut offered more liberty.

  • Middle Atlantic: broader tolerance; various sects including Quakers, Lutherans, Presbyterians, etc.

  • Southern: Anglican establishment; less religious toleration in some areas.

  • Economy:

  • New England: shipbuilding, fishing, commerce, timber; less reliance on slavery early on; local manufacturing limited by mercantilist restrictions.

  • Middle: breadbasket economies; diverse farming; some manufacturing; growing urban centers.

  • South: tobacco and later rice and indigo; large-scale slavery; plantation system dominates.

  • Politics:

  • Town meetings and assemblies more common in New England; Virginia’s House of Burgesses as early representative body; many colonies limited voting to white male property owners; some charters allowed broader participation than others.

• Historical thinking: argumentation in Period 2

  • Historians compare colonial systems and assess democracy, economic development, and social structure.

  • Examples of interpretive questions include evaluating the extent of democratic practices, the impact of mercantilism, and the influence of the Great Awakening on political culture.

Document-based questions and cross-cutting themes (overview)

• Key primary source documents and ideas referenced in the period 2 materials include:

  • The Mayflower Compact (1620): early example of self-government by the Pilgrims; covenant to govern by majority rule for the general good.

  • Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639): early written constitution establishing a representative government with popular vote and governor selected by the legislature.

  • The New England Confederation (1643): mutual defense alliance among New England colonies; limited powers; short-lived.

  • William Penn’s Plan of Union (1697) and later the Albany Plan (1754): early proposals for inter-colonial cooperation and a unified governance structure.

  • Ben Franklin’s The Albany Plan of Union and The Problem of Colonial Union (1754): arguments for inter-colonial unity and representation; tension over parliamentary representation and mercantilist restraints.

  • The Maryland Act of Toleration (1649): religious toleration for Christians (with a death penalty for those denying the divinity of Jesus); reflects religious tensions and attempts at toleration.

• Historical thinking and assessment prompts:

  • Analyze how and why different factors fostered unity among the English colonies (1620–1754) using documents and context.

  • Compare colonial regions to understand differences in religion, economy, governance, and social structure; discuss how these differences contributed to a unique colonial identity.

  • Evaluate how mercantilist policies, regulatory acts, and colonial resistance shaped the development of colonial economies and political life.

• Key terms (selected) to review by theme:

  • Settlements: Jamestown, Plymouth, Roanoke, New Amsterdam, New York, Boston, Providence, Hartford, etc.

  • Contact and labor: indentured servant, headright, slavery, Middle Passage, RAC, triangular trade.

  • Government and law: House of Burgesses, Mayflower Compact, Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, Frame of Government, Charter of Liberties, Royal vs. Proprietary vs. Corporate colonies.

  • Religion and society: Puritans, Separatists, Quakers, Rhode Island, Maryland Act of Toleration, Great Awakening, Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield, Ben Franklin (science and Enlightenment influence), literacy and education.

  • Geography and economy: New England (shipbuilding, fishing, timber), Middle Colonies (grain, fur trade, iron), Southern Colonies (tobacco, rice, indigo, plantation system).

  • Trade and empire: mercantilism, Navigation Acts, colonial regulation, Salutary neglect, Dominion of New England, Inter-colonial conferences.

Quick reference dates (selected)

• $1491$–$1607$: Era before colonization; Spanish dominance, early exploration.

• $1607$: Jamestown established as first permanent English settlement.

• $1620$: Mayflower lands at Plymouth; Mayflower Compact signed.

• $1624$: Virginia Company charter revoked; Virginia becomes royal colony.

• $1630$: Massachusetts Bay Colony founded; Great Migration begins.

• $1643$–$1644$: New England Confederation forms; religious and defense alliance in New England.

• $1649$: Maryland Act of Toleration enacted.

• $1663$–$1729$: Carolina proprietary grant; Georgia founded (1732) and Savannah (1733).

• $1684$–$1689$: Dominion of New England; Andros rule; Glorious Revolution ends Dominion.

• $1754$–$1763$: French and Indian War begins; broader imperial conflicts.

• $1754$ Albany Plan of Union proposed; Franklin’s plan for colonial union.