Chinese Axial Age Thought: Political Landscape and Major Philosophies
Chinese Axial Age Thought: Political Landscape and Philosophies
Initial Political Setting and Frame Values
Zhou Dynasty Disintegration (circa 771 \text{ BCE} initial fragmentation, more pronounced after circa 475 \text{ BCE}, ending 256 \text{ BCE}):
The Zhou dynasty fragmented into numerous effectively independent states after approximately 771 \text{ BCE}.
Similar to India, these states were ruled by chariot-riding warrior elites engaged in constant warfare.
These wars were primarily for prestige, glory, and honor, not initially for conquest.
Contrast with India:
Indian kingdoms emerged from warring chiefdoms of the Vedic period, thus lacking a strong expectation of political unity.
In China, a millennium of Shang and Zhou rule preceding the Zhou disintegration had cultivated a deep expectation of political unity, which became a foundational "frame value" in Chinese thought.
Fundamental Assumptions Driving Chinese Axial Age Thought
Unity and Connectedness of the Universe:
Expressed through various concepts, including correspondences of seasons, elements, and bodily functions (e.g., as documented in the Yellow Emperor's Medical Treatise).
The notion of Yin and Yang highlights the interrelatedness and complementarity of seemingly opposing forces.
Ancestral Worship and the Family Model:
Ancestral worship was a significant Chinese religious practice.
The family served as an implicit model for social order, influencing broader societal structures.
The Warring States Era: Political and Psychological Competition (circa 475 \text{ BCE} to 221 \text{ BCE})
These fundamental concepts shaped the ideas of all Chinese Axial Age thinkers.
Combined with the assumption of political unity as the natural state, this led to a focus on the state as the crucial mechanism for restoring order.
The problem of political disunity, warfare, and the quest for good governance sparked a wide range of philosophical reactions, famously known as the "Hundred Schools of Thought."
Prominent Schools of Thought
Confucianism
Master Kong (Confucius, traditionally circa 551-\text{c. }479 \text{ BCE}):
His name was Latinized to "Confucius" by Jesuit missionaries in the 17^{th} century.
Born into a poor but noble family, he sought government advisory roles but, failing that, turned to teaching.
His thought is primarily known through sayings collected by his students, forming a tradition more than a single text.
Core Teachings:
Was not interested in "Heaven" (the impersonal Chinese idea of divine intentionality) or an afterlife.
Believed order could be restored by returning to the virtues of an earlier age, viewing history as a guide and himself as a transmitter of past wisdom.
His originality lay in seeing good government as fundamentally a matter of ethics and good behavior by both rulers and subjects.
He believed education was the path to better behavior, asserting that anyone could be improved by it.
Despite this egalitarian aspect, hierarchy was central, akin to Hindu thought.
The Five Great Confucian Relationships (all unequal):
Father-Son: Father offers moral example and leadership; Son offers respect and obedience (filial piety).
Ruler-Subject: Ruler offers moral example and leadership; Subject offers respect and obedience.
Husband-Wife: Husband offers decisions and leadership; Wife offers respect and obedience.
Older Brother-Younger Brother: Older brother offers guidance; Younger brother offers respect.
Older Friend-Younger Friend: Older friend offers guidance; Younger friend offers respect.
Rectification of Names:
This approach to disorder emphasized that everyone should perform the role their name demands (e.g., "Let the ruler be a ruler, let the subject be a subject, let the father be a father, let the son be a son").
Reform was seen as an ethical example initiated from the top down.
Views on Human Nature (Following Confucius):
Confucius was ultimately neutral on human nature.
Mencius (Mengzi, circa 372-\text{c. }289 \text{ BCE}):
Saw humans as fundamentally good; education nurtured this goodness.
Believed states should govern benevolently on behalf of the people.
Xunzi (Xun Kuang, circa 310-\text{c. }235 \text{ BCE}):
Saw humans as innately evil; education curbed evil tendencies.
Argued states must use rewards and punishments to maintain order.
Mohism
Mozi (Mo Di, circa 470-\text{c. }391 \text{ BCE}):
Founded the school of thought known as Mohism.
Based on the principle of "universal love" or "impartial care," advocating for equal concern for all people.
Implications:
Although rivaling Confucianism in personal ethics, Mohists tended to encourage good government and meritocracy in the selection and promotion of ministers.
Taoism
Laozi and the Daodejing:
Developed from the teachings of the semi-legendary Laozi, thought to be a contemporary of Confucius and reputed author of the Daodejing.
"Dao" means "The Way," a term claimed by all Chinese philosophers, but Taoism came to monopolize it in a distinctive sense.
Core Principles:
Mystical in contrast to Confucian pragmatism, stressing the oneness of the natural universe.
Advises taking the path of least resistance; water is a central image (unresting, seeks lowest position, yet can carve grand canyons).
Not Escapism:
Far from a simple recipe for personal withdrawal, it functions as a manual for rulers.
Solution to Warfare and Disunity: Advises rulers to give up ambition and mind their own affairs, keeping subjects' bellies full and minds empty.
Often poked fun at the social rigidity of Confucianists.
Possibly encouraged free-market economic policies.
Encouraged aesthetic expression sometimes stifled by Confucian convention.
Legalism
Han Feizi (circa 280-\text{c. }233 \text{ BCE}):
Synthesized concepts from human nature debates and Taoism's natural order into practical politics of the Warring States era.
The result was "Legalism" or "The Way of Law."
Central Tenets:
Human Nature: People are fundamentally stupid and selfish.
Laws: Strict laws are the only way to create personal security and social order.
Punishments: Laws come with punishments so harsh that no one dares to disobey (in theory, meaning no one will be punished; in practice, a ruler's tool).
Rewards: Along with punishments, rewards are the "two handles" for a ruler to ensure smooth state and societal operation.
Ruler's Intentions: Kept secret; the laws provide the only framework for people's actions.
State Power as an End:
Unlike Confucianism, Mohism, and Taoism, Legalism viewed state power not as a tool for promoting social welfare or order, but as an end in itself.
Social order was desirable primarily because it made the ruler's job easier.
The central goal was to increase state power both domestically and in relation to rival states in the competitive Warring States environment.
Connection to Military Strategy:
Legalism is reflected in significant military writings, such as The Art of War by Sun Tzu (a semi-mythical author representing a tradition rather than a single individual).
Guides to military success, administration, and policy proliferated after the mid-4^{th} century BCE.
Transformation of Warfare and Statecraft
State Reactions to Warfare and Disunity (Post-4^{th} Century BCE):
Some rulers promoted agriculture to increase tax revenues.
Increased revenues were used to build better state administrations.
Characteristics of Better Administration:
Bigger and more centralized.
Staffed based on merit rather than birth.
Enforced policies based on impartial laws, not family influence.
Changes in Warfare:
A better administration could recruit and maintain larger, qualitatively different armies.
Goal Shift: From glory to conquest.
Nature of Wars: Became less frequent but more decisive.
Decline in Number of States: From hundreds to just seven major states by 221 \text{ BCE}.
Tactics: Focus on cities and fortifications.
Army Composition: Shift from small aristocratic charioteers/cavalry to masses of conscriptionist infantry.
Bureaucratic Centralization: Mass armies necessitated further centralization to manage conscription, training, clothing, and housing.
Civilian Control and Meritocracy:
Militaries increasingly came under the control of civilian bureaucrats.
Old military aristocrats were devalued.
Legitimacy and the right to violence became exclusive to the ruler's office, not aristocratic birth.
Emphasis on merit for staffing marginalized the nobility and created opportunities for talented individuals to rise socially through education.
Social Mobility:
Social mobility in the Warring States era was notably higher than it would be until the late 20^{th} century.
Rise of Scribes and Gentry: The growing need for scribes in Chinese states, coupled with wealthy landowners (gentry) whose sons could afford education, led to the formation of this influential class.
Qualifications for office holding increasingly included knowledge gleaned from philosophical schools.
Synthesis: The Qin (221-206 BCE) and Han (206 BCE - 220 CE) Dynasties
Context for Reunification:
The reunification of China was built upon the philosophical developments of the Warring States era.
This unification, in turn, provided the context for the synthesis of many major schools of thought.
Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE):
The Western state of Qin, the most rigorously Legalist state, defeated all rivals.
Banned all rival philosophies as subversive, initiating massive book burnings.
The brief Qin dynasty, built on Legalist principles, failed due to its extreme harshness, leading to public discredit of Legalism by name.
Example of Harshness: A story (possibly true) recounts peasants conscripted for wall-building were late due to floods. Facing death for lateness, they rebelled, overthrowing the dynasty.
Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE):
Retained most of the Legalist administrative structure established by the Qin.
Adopted Confucianism as its official ruling philosophy.
The "Iron Hand in a Velvet Glove" Metaphor: This describes the Han's approach, combining the effective, centralized structure of Legalism with the ethical and benevolent facade of Confucianism.
Daoist Influence: Early Han also adopted light economic regulations informed by Daoist principles, adding flexibility (