In-Depth Notes on Alexander II and III Reforms, 1905 Revolution, and Lenin's Russia

Alexander II Reforms (1855-1881)

Extent of the Reform

  • Emancipation of the Serfs (1861)

    • Successes:

    • Approximately 40 million peasants liberated.

    • Freed peasants permitted to buy land, leading to the formation of kulaks (wealthy peasants).

    • Reduced short-term peasant uprisings; abolished serfdom non-violently.

    • Long-term success: 85% of former serfs became landowners within 20 years.

    • Failures:

    • Economic Modernization:

      • Peasants struggled due to insufficient land and constraints from Mir (land commune).

      • Unable to become new consumers; could not migrate to work in factories due to restrictions by the Mir.

    • Implementation Problems:

      • Dependent on nobles for execution; reforms executed slowly, favoring landowners.

      • Russia lacked administrative capacity for smooth reform rollout.

    • Redemption Payments:

      • Peasants had to pay landlords for land in 49 annual installments at 6% interest.

      • Land prices inflated by landlords and payments channeled back to the local Mir, maintaining peasant control.

Local Government

  • Establishment of zemstvo (elected councils) and duma for self-governance.

    • Failures:

    • Limited powers due to financial constraints and authority remaining with Tsar's provincial governors.

    • Decisions of zemstvo could be overruled; dominated by nobility.

    • Successes:

    • Provided a platform for local political experience and potential for addressing social issues like public health and infrastructure.

Military Reforms

  • Reduced conscription service from 25 years to 6 years.

  • Mandatory service for all males over 20, although nobility allowed to evade draft.

  • Promoted opportunities for all ranks to advance in the army.

  • Divided army into military districts for localized administration.

Legal Reforms

  • Adopted a judicial system closer to Western styles:

    • Introduction of defense lawyers, juries, and trained legal staff ensuring fair trials.

    • Better-trained and higher-paid judges to reduce corruption.

    • Failures:

    • Political radicals faced unfair trials, with peasants tried in special courts outside of the new system.

    • Police maintained significant unchecked power; shortage of trained lawyers present.

Economic Reforms

  • Railway expansion from 1000 miles to 14,000 miles between 1861-1880; remained inadequate for Russia's size.

  • Heavy industry growth:

    • 16-fold increase in coal production, 10-fold increase in steel, and 50% rise in iron from 1860-1876.

    • Reliance on foreign investment hampering self-sufficiency.

Educational Reforms

  • Successes:

    • Universities gained independence in 1863, women permitted in 1864.

    • Libraries were exempt from censorship by 1863.

    • Educational administration transferred from the Church to Zemstva in 1864.

  • Failures:

    • Independence of universities reversed in 1870s; severe restrictions imposed on university fees.

    • Education split into classical and real schools in 1877; only classical school graduates eligible for university.

Policies of Alexander III (1881-1894)

Economic Modernization

  • Expansion of railways linked resources like Baku oil and Caspian Sea to trade.

  • Impact on cotton production and trade expansion in Asia, and cultivation in the Black Earth Zone.

Bunge's Policies (Minister of Finance)

  • Introduced labor laws for better working conditions; faced mistrust from workers and businesses.

  • Defined rules for employing workers, implementing wages, and regulating fines.

The Kornilov Affair

  • A failed military coup against the Provisional Government.

    • Revealed vulnerability of government and military threats.

    • Strengthened Bolsheviks' position by portraying them as defenders of the revolution.

Tsarist Repression

  • Russification Policies:

    • Mandated teaching in Russian; 100,000 troops stationed in Poland to suppress dissent.

    • Imposed severe restrictions on Jews across various occupations and rights.

Local Governments and Nobility

  • Established Noble's Land Bank (1885) for favorable loans to landowners.

  • Introduced Land Captains with authority to overrule peasant courts and manage local governance.

  • Zemstva's power diminished after 1890, restricting voting rights.

Peasantry

  • Reforms aimed to enhance loyalty among peasants.

    • Enhanced opportunities for renting state land, acquiring 1/3 of noble lands by 1904.

    • Increased school fees kept lower-class children out of education.

  • Judiciary Changes:

    • Increased powers for the Minister of Justice; special courts established for crimes against state officials.

The Impact of First World War and Final Crisis of Autocracy

Economic Problems

  • War-induced economic strain, driving Russia towards crisis.

  • Inflation surged; food shortages ensued from prioritization of military needs.

  • Both Petrograd and Moscow faced severe food and resource shortages by 1916.

Tsar's Loss of Support

  • Nicholas II's military command during the war led to blame for military failures and declining morale.

Opposition Growth

  • Anti-tsar sentiment expanded due to food shortages, military incompetence, and lack of governmental effectiveness.

February Revolution (1917)

Provisional Government Issues

  • Struggled to address ongoing war, socio-economic disorder, and lacked general public support.

  • Dual authority emerged with the power struggle between the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet.

Accomplishments of Provisional Government

  • Arrested tsarist officials, disbanded secret police, and addressed political prisoner amnesty.

  • Attempted to organize elections for a new Constituent Assembly.

October Revolution (1917)

Causes of the October Revolution

  • Peasant dissatisfaction over land redistribution issues.

  • Political weakness within the Provisional Government evidenced by the Kornilov Affair.

Bolshevik Success Factors

  • The Provisional Government's incompetence and lack of military cohesion facilitated Bolshevik takeover.

  • Lenin's decisive leadership and ability to unite triangular political movements against the government.

Lenin's Russia/Soviet Union

Consolidation of the New Soviet State

  • Established the sovnarkom to exclude opposing factions.

  • Implemented Land Decree and significant nationalization policies.

Civil War & War Communism (1918-1921)

  • Descriptions of overwhelming hardships faced by the civilian populace spurred War Communism aimed at central economic control.

New Economic Policy (NEP)

  • Introduced to address famine, hunger, and economic collapse following War Communism.

    • Allowed controlled capitalist practices including grain retention and promoting market engagement.

Conclusion

  • Following a complex series of reforms, revolutions, and civil war, the Russian political landscape shifted dramatically towards a communist governance style.