Comprehensive Notes on Contemporary History: From the Great War to the Fall of the USSR

 # The Concept of the "Short Century" and Historical Periodization

Contemporary history is often interpreted through the lens of Eric Hobsbawm's concept of the "Short Century," which spans from $1914$ (the start of World War I) to $1991$ (the collapse of the Soviet Union). With the fall of the USSR, the Russian Federation emerged, though it ceased to be the central geopolitical power it once was. Vladimir Putin has notably described this collapse as a catastrophe, which facilitated a unipolar world led by the United States. By the $2000s$, Russia moved away from collaboration with the West. Hobsbawm’s chronology suggests that the twentieth century did not align with objective calendar extremes, but was defined by its political and social cataclysms.

Conversely, historians refer to the "Long Nineteenth Century," which began in the second half of the eighteenth century with the Industrial Revolutions and concluded in $1914$. This long century was marked by the American and French Revolutions, which fostered phenomena such as nationalism—a primary driver of subsequent global conflicts. During the late nineteenth century, tensions escalated between established monarchies like France and Great Britain and newer nation-states like Germany and Italy. This period saw the "nationalization of the masses," where shared cultural values and a sense of belonging were transmitted through state institutions like schools to build a cohesive national community.

The Outbreak of World War I: Breaking with the Past

The Great War represents a fundamental rupture in human history due to its global scale, the staggering number of victims—approximately $10,000,000$ deaths—and the radical reconfiguration of European borders. It introduced the "brutalization of political struggle," where wartime violence translated into post-war political discourse. Modern history can be studied through cultural, social, economic, or political lenses; the cultural approach specifically focuses on mental maps, shared narratives, and the formation of communities through mass media like the radio.

The immediate casus belli was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on $June 28, 1914$, by Gavrilo Princips. This event triggered a conflict between Serbia and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, eventually forming two major blocs: the Central Powers (Austria, Germany, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria joining in $1915$) and the Entente (Serbia, Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy joining in $May 1915$, followed by Portugal, Romania, Greece, and the USA in $1917$).

The Reality of Trench Warfare and Technical Innovations

Initial enthusiasm for the war was fueled by state-sponsored nationalism and romanticized literature. However, the conflict quickly shifted from a war of movement to static trench warfare. This stalemate resulted in horrific living conditions and high death rates. The war was characterized by the use of "wonders" of military technology, including machine guns capable of firing hundreds of rounds per minute, high-precision cannons, grenades, and combat aircraft for bombing military and civilian positions.

Chemical warfare, specifically asphyxiating gases, was utilized for the first time by the Germans in Belgium and later by fascist Italy. This led to the development of gas masks as a primary countermeasure. Propaganda was used extensively to maintain the "internal front," often utilizing fake news to dehumanize the enemy. A prominent example was the unconfirmed story of the "Crucifixion of Ypres" in $April 1915$. Marc Bloch noted that false news always arises from preexisting collective representations, where the culture of sacrifice for the nation fused with Christian tradition, leading to a brutalized European mentality.

Mass Deportations and Global Crises during the Great War

In $May 1915$, the Ottoman Empire, at war with the Tsarist Empire, initiated the deportation of Armenians. Estimates suggest that between $300,000$ and $1,000,000$ Armenians died during transfers to concentration camps due to terrible conditions. Before the war, there were approximately $1,500,000$ Armenians in Turkey; afterwards, only $70,000$ remained. Many historians categorize this as a planned genocide.

Resistance to the war was limited to certain socialist parties emphasizing class struggle, neutral countries like Belgium, Switzerland, and Spain, and the Catholic Church. Pope Benedict XV famously defined the war as a "useless slaughter." Economically, governments assumed full control. While war industries flourished, rural areas suffered from inflation caused by the scarcity of products for civilians and the excessive printing of paper money by banks, often exceeding gold reserves.

Italy: From Neutrality to Intervention

Italy initially declared neutrality, officially because the Triple Alliance was a defensive pact, but realistically because the military was unprepared following the war in Libya. This led to a split between Neutralists (Giolittian liberals, Catholics) and Interventists (democrats, nationalists, and revolutionaries). The interventionists triumphed when the government, led by Antonio Salandra, bypassed Parliament with the secret Treaty of London in $April 1915$, which promised Italy territories like Trento, Trieste, Istria, and Dalmatia upon victory.

On $May 24, 1915$, Italy officially declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Propaganda played a massive role, with figures like Gabriele D'Annunzio using Risorgimento and biblical metaphors to stir patriotic fervor. By $1917$, exhaustion permeated the fronts. In Italy, the disastrous defeat at Caporetto on $October 24, 1917$, led to the replacement of General Cadorna with Armando Diaz, who improved soldier conditions and utilized more effective patriotic propaganda.

US Entry and the Final Phased of the Great War

The United States entered the war in $April 1917$ under President Woodrow Wilson. Motivations included the German submarine warfare (such as the sinking of the Lusitania, which killed $128$ US passengers), the defense of democracy, and strong economic ties with the Entente—exports to the UK and France had quadrupled between $1914$ and $1917$. The US military, initially based on volunteers, was reorganized via mandatory draft to include $1,800,000$ soldiers.

With the collapse of the Russian front following the Bolshevik Revolution, Germany moved troops West. However, the arrival of well-resourced US troops and the introduction of tanks broke the German lines. By late $1918$, the Central Powers collapsed. Bulgaria surrendered in September, the Ottomans in October, and Austria-Hungary signed an armistice on $November 3, 1918$ (effective the $4th$), after the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. On $November 11, 1918$, a new German republican government signed the armistice at Rethondes.

The Post-War Settlement: Wilson’s 14 Points and Versailles

In $January 1918$, Wilson proposed the "$14$ Points," advocating for open diplomacy, disarmament, free trade, the self-determination of peoples, and the creation of the League of Nations ($1920$). However, the Paris Peace Conference ($1919$) largely ignored Wilson’s utopian ideals in favor of punishing Germany. The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to return Alsace-Lorraine, lose its colonies, reduce its army to $100,000$ units, and pay $132,000,000,000$ marks in reparations.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was dismantled into individual republics (Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia). The Ottoman Empire likewise crumbled, with the Middle East divided into mandates under British (Palestine, Iraq) and French (Syria, Lebanon) control. Mustafa Kemal led a nationalist movement to form the Republic of Turkey, following a ethnic cleansing of Greeks. In Ireland, the $1916$ Easter Rising and subsequent conflict with the UK led to the birth of the Irish Free State in $1922$, excluding Ulster.

The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism to Bolshevism

Russia suffered the highest losses in the war, with $1,700,000$ dead and $5,000,000$ wounded. Famine and inflation led to the February Revolution in $1917$. Tsar Nicholas II abdicated, ending the Romanov dynasty. A Provisional Government was formed, but it faced "dual power" with the Soviets (committees of workers and soldiers). Lenin returned from exile with his "April Theses," calling for "Peace, Land, and Bread."

In $October 1917$, the Bolsheviks seized power in a coup, forming the Council of People's Commissars. They signed a punitive peace with Germany at Brest-Litovsk ($March 3, 1918$), losing Finland, the Baltic States, and Ukraine. A bloody Civil War followed ($1918-1921$) between the "Red Army" (organized by Trotsky) and the "White Armies" (pro-Tsarist forces assisted by the Entente). The Communists prevailed, but the war and subsequent famine killed $7,000,000$ people.

The Soviet State: From War Communism to Stalinism

Economic policy transitioned from the restrictive "War Communism" (forced requisitions) to the New Economic Policy (NEP) in $1921$, which allowed partial market freedom for peasants (Kulaks). In $1922$, the state became the USSR. Significant social reforms were introduced: equal rights for women, consensual divorce, legalized abortion ($1920$), and secularization. Education became mandatory until age $15$. However, political repression was severe, managed by the Cheka (secret police).

After Lenin’s death in $1924$, a power struggle emerged between Stalin, who favored "Socialism in one country," and Trotsky, who advocated "Permanent Revolution." Stalin triumphed by $1927$, expelling his rivals. He emphasized the sacralization of the party, transforming it into a "party-church" with Lenin’s embalmed body as a permanent cult icon. Stalin replaced the NEP with Five-Year Plans, forcing rapid industrialization and agricultural collectivization, the latter leading to the "induced famine" in Ukraine ($1932-1933$) with $7$ to $10,000,000$ deaths.

The "Roaring Twenties" and US Prosperity

The US emerged as the premier economic power, possessing half the world's gold. Industrial production rose $223$ while European production fell $23,000$. The era was marked by the rise of consumerism (radios, cars, appliances bought on installment plans) and the "Star System" of Hollywood, which exported American values. Culturally, the "flapper" or "garçonne" model represented new female independence, reflected in fashion and makeup.

Societally, the US experienced a conservative backlash: the Ku Klux Klan was refounded in $1915$, and Prohibition restricted alcohol from $1920$, inadvertently fueling the rise of organized crime led by figures like Al Capone. In $1920$, US women gained the right to vote. Meanwhile, European economies struggled with hyperinflation, particularly in Germany, leading to the Dawes Plan ($1924$) and Young Plan ($1927$) to stabilize debt through US loans.

The Rise of Fascism in Italy

Post-war Italy faced social unrest (the Biennio Rosso) and the myth of the "Mutilated Victory." In $1919$, Benito Mussolini founded the Fasci di Combattimento. Utilizing paramilitary violence (the Blackshirts), the fascists attacked socialists and unions, gaining support from elite agrarian and industrial interests. In $October 1922$, the "March on Rome" forced King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister.

Between $1925$ and $1926$, the "Fascistissime Laws" dismantled democracy, making the government responsible only to the King and banning other parties. The Lateran Pacts ($1929$) reconciled the state with the Catholic Church, establishing Catholicism as the state religion and recognizing the Vatican's sovereignty. Mussolini promoted pro-natalist policies, the "Battle for Grain," and autarchy. In $1935$, Italy invaded Ethiopia, leading to the formation of the Italian Empire and a shift toward an alliance with Nazi Germany (the Rome-Berlin Axis, $1936$).

The Great Depression and the Global Turn to Authoritarianism

The speculative bubble on Wall Street burst on "Black Tuesday," $October 29, 1929$. US loans to Europe ceased, causing a global economic collapse. In the US, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s "New Deal" used massive public works (TVA) and banking reform to stimulate recovery. In Europe, the crisis facilitated the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany. By $1932$, German unemployment reached $6,000,000$ ($30.00\%$ of the workforce).

Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor on $January 30, 1933$. Following the Reichstag fire, he used the Enabling Act to establish a totalitarian state. The regime emphasized "Aryan" racial purity, passing the Nuremberg Laws ($1935$) and initiating the Kristallnacht pogrom in $1938$. The Nazi state pursued eugenics, including forced sterilization and the T4 euthanasia program. Both Italy and Germany intervened in the Spanish Civil War ($1936-1939$) to support Francisco Franco’s fascist-backed rebellion.

World War II: The Global Conflict

World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on $September 1, 1939$. Using "Blitzkrieg" tactics, Germany conquered much of Europe by $1940$. The war became truly global with the German invasion of the USSR (Operation Barbarossa, $June 1941$) and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor ($December 7, 1941$). The Nazi regime implemented the "Final Solution," murderously systematically killing $6,000,000$ Jews in death camps.

The tide turned at the Battle of Stalingrad ($1942-1943$) and through US industrial might. Allied landings in Italy ($1943$) and Normandy ($1944$) led to the collapse of the Axis. Mussolini was executed by partisans in $April 1945$, followed by Hitler’s suicide. The war in the Pacific ended with the US dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima ($August 6, 1945$) and Nagasaki ($August 9, 1945$), leading to Japan's unconditional surrender on $September 2, 1945$.

The Cold War: Bipolarism and Global Tension

The post-war world was defined by the bipolar rivalry between the USA and the USSR. The US initiated the "Containment" policy via the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan ($1947$) to block Soviet expansion. The USSR responded with the COMINFORM and the "Two Camps" doctrine. Major flashpoints included the Berlin Blockade ($1948$), the Korean War ($1950-1953$), and the Cuban Missile Crisis ($1962$).

Decolonization became a central theme, as seen in the Bandung Conference ($1955$), where a "Third World" of non-aligned nations emerged. Nikita Khrushchev succeeded Stalin, initiating "De-Stalinization" but also suppressing the Hungarian Uprising ($1956$). The Vietnam War ($1964-1973$) severely strained US resources and morale. Period of "Détente" occurred in the $1970s$ with the SALT treaties, but the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ($1979$) reignited tensions.

The Collapse of the Bipolar System

In the $1980s$, Ronald Reagan challenged the "Evil Empire" with massive military spending and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in $1985$, launching Glasnost (transparency) and Perestroika (restructuring). His refusal to use force to maintain the Eastern Bloc led to the fall of the Berlin Wall in $November 1989$ and the reunification of Germany in $1990$.

Internal pressures and secessionist movements in the Baltic states culminated in a failed coup in $August 1991$. Boris Yeltsin emerged as the new leader of the Russian Republic, and on $December 25, 1991$, the Soviet Union was formally dissolved. This marked the end of the "Short Century" and the beginning of a era often defined by Western unipolarity, though challenged by regional powers and the legacy of the Cold War.