African resistance to colonialism can be divided into three main stages:
First Stage (1880–1914): Early resistance during the initial colonial conquest.
Second Stage (1914–1945): Continued resistance against colonial policies adopted by colonizers.
Third Stage (1950s–1980s):
Period of decolonization.
Emergence of national liberation movements with the main goal of achieving political independence.
Africans' responses to colonial rule varied from place to place, involving several forms of resistance:
Armed resistance.
Nonviolent forms of anti-colonialism, which included:
Use of the indigenous press.
Trade unionism.
Organized religion.
Associations, literary and art forms.
Mass migrations.
Resistance in West Africa
Ahmadu Seku:
Prominent leader of the Tukulor Empire in West Africa.
Resisted French rule from the 1830s to 1845.
Methods: Initially diplomacy, later armed resistance.
He fought against French-Senegalese troops.
End: His forces were defeated and he was exiled to Sokoto, where he died.
Later, the French allied with his brother to control the region.
Samori Ture:
A Muslim leader in the Mandinka Empire.
Engaged French forces in a protracted armed resistance from 1882 to 1898.
Success: Unified the present-day areas of Guinea, Mali, and Cote D’Ivoire under his administration.
Led an army of approximately 30,000 men.
Captured by the French in 1900 and exiled to Gabon in Central Africa.
The Asante Kingdom (Ghana):
Led resistance against British colonial expansion by Asantehene (King) Prempe.
After a bloody war, the British defeated local resistance and established their colony of the Gold Coast over all of Ghana in 1900.
Strategies employed by the British included divide and rule, employing superior weapons, and recruiting African troops.
Ghana and Nigeria were both fully controlled by the British by 1910.
Resistance in East Africa
The Maji-Maji Uprising (1905–1907):
Significant resistance against German colonial rule in Tanganyika (modern-day Tanzania).
Causes:
Imposition of heavy taxation.
Use of forced labor for cotton growing and road construction.
Harsh German colonial policies.
Leadership and Beliefs:
Prophet Kinjikitle Ngwale led the movement against the Germans.
He taught that sacred water, known as Maji Maji, would turn enemy bullets into water.
Nature of the Uprising:
Spread across Tanganyika involving about 20 different ethnic groups.
Characterized as spontaneous, poorly planned, and lacking central leadership.
German Response and Outcome:
Adopted a scorched-earth policy.
Destroyed villages and crops.
Uprising was brutally crushed.
Resistance in South Africa
Herero and Nama Resistance (1904–1905):
Context: Harsh German colonial rule led to land alienation.
Herero and Nama peoples lost grazing land to German settlers.
Causes of Resistance: Loss of land, grazing areas, and effects of cattle epidemics (1896–1897).
Key uprisings:
Herero Uprising of 1904 led by Samuel Maharero.
Nama Uprising of 1905 led by Hendrik Witbooi.
Both uprisings were defeated, and German forces crushed the resistance.
Resistance in North Africa
The Urabi Revolt in Egypt (1881–1882):
Context: Struggle between Britain and France for influence in Egypt after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
Leadership: Revolt led by Colonel Urabi Pasha against imperialism.
Outcome: In 1882, British forces entered Cairo, defeated the revolt, and Egypt became a British colony.
The Mahdist Movement in the Sudan:
A religious revivalist and anti-colonial movement initiated in 1881 by Muhammad Ahmad (Al-Mahdi).
Achievements: Initially won victory over colonial forces and captured Khartoum in 1885.
However, the Anglo-Egyptian army eventually defeated the Mahdist forces at Omdurman.
Consequence: Establishment of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
8.2 The Decolonization Processes
Definition: Decolonization processes refer to the political, legal, and administrative steps through which African colonies formally ended colonial rule and became independent states.
Key Characteristics:
Involved negotiations, reforms, referendums, and constitutional changes.
Emphasized peaceful political action, usually led by nationalist leaders and colonial governments.
Resulted in official dates of independence, new constitutions, and state formations.
Examples of Decolonization:
Ghana: Gained independence in 1957 through negotiations with Britain.
French colonies: Voting in 1958 referendum leading to independence in 1960.
Sudan: Achieved independence following the end of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
Tanzania: Formed through the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
8.3 Liberation Struggles
Definition: Liberation struggles refer to the actions taken by Africans to fight colonial domination, especially when colonial powers refused to grant independence.
Key Characteristics:
Involved mass protests, strikes, boycotts, and sometimes armed conflict.
Often violent in regions dominated by white settlers.
Led by nationalist organizations and revolutionary movements.
Aimed at ending oppression, racial discrimination, and foreign rule.
Examples of Liberation Struggles:
The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) led by the FLN.
The Mau Mau uprising in Kenya.
Armed struggles by ZANU and ZAPU in Zimbabwe.
The anti-apartheid struggle led by the ANC in South Africa.
The war led by SWAPO in Namibia.
National Liberation Movements in North Africa
Egypt:
Egypt led the way to independence following World War I, demanding an end to British rule led by Saad Zaghlul.
Widespread demonstrations and strikes prompted Britain to declare Egyptian independence on February 22, 1922.
Libya:
Achieved independence from Italy on December 24, 1951, after being administered under UN Trusteeship.
Algeria:
Initiated the Algerian War of Independence in November 1954, led by former soldiers of the French army under the FLN.
Resulted in ongoing violence and guerrilla warfare against French rule until independence was achieved on July 1, 1962.
National Liberation Movements in West Africa
British West Africa:
Comprising territories such as Ghana and Nigeria, achieved relatively peaceful decolonization due to few white settlers and strong nationalist movements.
Ghana:
First British colony in sub-Saharan Africa to gain independence in 1957 led by the CPP.
Nigeria:
Nationalist politics developed along regional and ethnic lines; achieved independence in 1960.
National Liberation Movements in East and Central Africa
British East Africa:
Uganda: Gained independence in 1962 under Milton Obote.
Kenya: Key movements included the Kikuyu Central Association and the violent Mau Mau Rebellion, leading to independence in 1963.
Tanzania: Formed through the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, achieving independence in the early 1960s.
National Liberation Movements in Southern Africa
Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe):
Experienced a difficult path to independence due to a white minority regime; independence achieved in 1980 under Robert Mugabe.
SWAPO in Namibia:
Led the struggle against South African rule, gaining independence in 1990.
8.4 Politics in Independent African States
Political instability defined many French-speaking African states after independence, often resulting in military rule.
Civilian governments frequently collapsed due to corruption, inefficiency, and authoritarianism.
8.5 Economy and Society in Independent Africa
Newly independent African states inherited weak economic systems, primarily reliant on the production of raw materials.
Many countries continued to struggle with poverty and failed to meet the expectations of independence leaders, despite some achieving significant progress.
8.6 The Cold War and Africa
Africa became a focal point in the Cold War rivalry between the USA and the USSR, with both superpowers seeking influence on the continent.
Many African leaders sought foreign support to combat local threats and maintain power.
8.7 Pan-Africanism
Defined by a desire for African unity and solidarity among people of African descent worldwide.
Originated primarily from the New World, with figures like Du Bois and Garvey being instrumental in its development.
8.8 The Organization of African Unity (OAU)
Established to promote African unity and cooperation, and to support liberation movements.
Convoked by Kwame Nkrumah in 1963, it became a key institution in post-colonial Africa, with Ethiopia playing a vital role in its creation.
Its effectiveness was limited by differing national interests and approaches to achieving unity.