CHAPTER EIGHT - African Move Towards Independence

8.1 Resistance and Revolts

  • African resistance to colonialism can be divided into three main stages:
    • First Stage (1880–1914): Early resistance during the initial colonial conquest.
    • Second Stage (1914–1945): Continued resistance against colonial policies adopted by colonizers.
    • Third Stage (1950s–1980s):
    • Period of decolonization.
    • Emergence of national liberation movements with the main goal of achieving political independence.
  • Africans' responses to colonial rule varied from place to place, involving several forms of resistance:
    • Armed resistance.
    • Nonviolent forms of anti-colonialism, which included:
    • Use of the indigenous press.
    • Trade unionism.
    • Organized religion.
    • Associations, literary and art forms.
    • Mass migrations.

Resistance in West Africa

  • Ahmadu Seku:
    • Prominent leader of the Tukulor Empire in West Africa.
    • Resisted French rule from the 1830s to 1845.
    • Methods: Initially diplomacy, later armed resistance.
    • He fought against French-Senegalese troops.
    • End: His forces were defeated and he was exiled to Sokoto, where he died.
    • Later, the French allied with his brother to control the region.
  • Samori Ture:
    • A Muslim leader in the Mandinka Empire.
    • Engaged French forces in a protracted armed resistance from 1882 to 1898.
    • Success: Unified the present-day areas of Guinea, Mali, and Cote D’Ivoire under his administration.
    • Led an army of approximately 30,000 men.
    • Captured by the French in 1900 and exiled to Gabon in Central Africa.
  • The Asante Kingdom (Ghana):
    • Led resistance against British colonial expansion by Asantehene (King) Prempe.
    • After a bloody war, the British defeated local resistance and established their colony of the Gold Coast over all of Ghana in 1900.
    • Strategies employed by the British included divide and rule, employing superior weapons, and recruiting African troops.
    • Ghana and Nigeria were both fully controlled by the British by 1910.

Resistance in East Africa

  • The Maji-Maji Uprising (1905–1907):
    • Significant resistance against German colonial rule in Tanganyika (modern-day Tanzania).
    • Causes:
    • Imposition of heavy taxation.
    • Use of forced labor for cotton growing and road construction.
    • Harsh German colonial policies.
  • Leadership and Beliefs:
    • Prophet Kinjikitle Ngwale led the movement against the Germans.
    • He taught that sacred water, known as Maji Maji, would turn enemy bullets into water.
  • Nature of the Uprising:
    • Spread across Tanganyika involving about 20 different ethnic groups.
    • Characterized as spontaneous, poorly planned, and lacking central leadership.
  • German Response and Outcome:
    • Adopted a scorched-earth policy.
    • Destroyed villages and crops.
    • Uprising was brutally crushed.

Resistance in South Africa

  • Herero and Nama Resistance (1904–1905):
    • Context: Harsh German colonial rule led to land alienation.
    • Herero and Nama peoples lost grazing land to German settlers.
    • Causes of Resistance: Loss of land, grazing areas, and effects of cattle epidemics (1896–1897).
    • Key uprisings:
    • Herero Uprising of 1904 led by Samuel Maharero.
    • Nama Uprising of 1905 led by Hendrik Witbooi.
    • Both uprisings were defeated, and German forces crushed the resistance.

Resistance in North Africa

  • The Urabi Revolt in Egypt (1881–1882):
    • Context: Struggle between Britain and France for influence in Egypt after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
    • Leadership: Revolt led by Colonel Urabi Pasha against imperialism.
    • Outcome: In 1882, British forces entered Cairo, defeated the revolt, and Egypt became a British colony.
  • The Mahdist Movement in the Sudan:
    • A religious revivalist and anti-colonial movement initiated in 1881 by Muhammad Ahmad (Al-Mahdi).
    • Achievements: Initially won victory over colonial forces and captured Khartoum in 1885.
    • However, the Anglo-Egyptian army eventually defeated the Mahdist forces at Omdurman.
    • Consequence: Establishment of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.

8.2 The Decolonization Processes

  • Definition: Decolonization processes refer to the political, legal, and administrative steps through which African colonies formally ended colonial rule and became independent states.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Involved negotiations, reforms, referendums, and constitutional changes.
    • Emphasized peaceful political action, usually led by nationalist leaders and colonial governments.
    • Resulted in official dates of independence, new constitutions, and state formations.
  • Examples of Decolonization:
    • Ghana: Gained independence in 1957 through negotiations with Britain.
    • French colonies: Voting in 1958 referendum leading to independence in 1960.
    • Sudan: Achieved independence following the end of the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium.
    • Tanzania: Formed through the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.

8.3 Liberation Struggles

  • Definition: Liberation struggles refer to the actions taken by Africans to fight colonial domination, especially when colonial powers refused to grant independence.
  • Key Characteristics:
    • Involved mass protests, strikes, boycotts, and sometimes armed conflict.
    • Often violent in regions dominated by white settlers.
    • Led by nationalist organizations and revolutionary movements.
    • Aimed at ending oppression, racial discrimination, and foreign rule.
  • Examples of Liberation Struggles:
    • The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) led by the FLN.
    • The Mau Mau uprising in Kenya.
    • Armed struggles by ZANU and ZAPU in Zimbabwe.
    • The anti-apartheid struggle led by the ANC in South Africa.
    • The war led by SWAPO in Namibia.

National Liberation Movements in North Africa

  • Egypt:
    • Egypt led the way to independence following World War I, demanding an end to British rule led by Saad Zaghlul.
    • Widespread demonstrations and strikes prompted Britain to declare Egyptian independence on February 22, 1922.
  • Libya:
    • Achieved independence from Italy on December 24, 1951, after being administered under UN Trusteeship.
  • Algeria:
    • Initiated the Algerian War of Independence in November 1954, led by former soldiers of the French army under the FLN.
    • Resulted in ongoing violence and guerrilla warfare against French rule until independence was achieved on July 1, 1962.

National Liberation Movements in West Africa

  • British West Africa:
    • Comprising territories such as Ghana and Nigeria, achieved relatively peaceful decolonization due to few white settlers and strong nationalist movements.
    • Ghana:
    • First British colony in sub-Saharan Africa to gain independence in 1957 led by the CPP.
    • Nigeria:
    • Nationalist politics developed along regional and ethnic lines; achieved independence in 1960.

National Liberation Movements in East and Central Africa

  • British East Africa:
    • Uganda: Gained independence in 1962 under Milton Obote.
    • Kenya: Key movements included the Kikuyu Central Association and the violent Mau Mau Rebellion, leading to independence in 1963.
    • Tanzania: Formed through the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, achieving independence in the early 1960s.

National Liberation Movements in Southern Africa

  • Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe):
    • Experienced a difficult path to independence due to a white minority regime; independence achieved in 1980 under Robert Mugabe.
  • SWAPO in Namibia:
    • Led the struggle against South African rule, gaining independence in 1990.

8.4 Politics in Independent African States

  • Political instability defined many French-speaking African states after independence, often resulting in military rule.
  • Civilian governments frequently collapsed due to corruption, inefficiency, and authoritarianism.

8.5 Economy and Society in Independent Africa

  • Newly independent African states inherited weak economic systems, primarily reliant on the production of raw materials.
  • Many countries continued to struggle with poverty and failed to meet the expectations of independence leaders, despite some achieving significant progress.

8.6 The Cold War and Africa

  • Africa became a focal point in the Cold War rivalry between the USA and the USSR, with both superpowers seeking influence on the continent.
  • Many African leaders sought foreign support to combat local threats and maintain power.

8.7 Pan-Africanism

  • Defined by a desire for African unity and solidarity among people of African descent worldwide.
  • Originated primarily from the New World, with figures like Du Bois and Garvey being instrumental in its development.

8.8 The Organization of African Unity (OAU)

  • Established to promote African unity and cooperation, and to support liberation movements.
  • Convoked by Kwame Nkrumah in 1963, it became a key institution in post-colonial Africa, with Ethiopia playing a vital role in its creation.
  • Its effectiveness was limited by differing national interests and approaches to achieving unity.