resistance and rebellion
Categories of Enslaved Resistance
There were TWO main categories of resistance engaged in by the Enslaved Africans:
Non-Insurrectionary Resistance: These were non-violent forms of daily resistance. This type of resistance was usually engaged in by individuals.
Insurrectionary Resistance: These were violent forms of resistance that contributed to the loss of life and property. This type of resistance was usually engaged in by groups.
Forms of Non-Insurrectionary Resistance
Enslaved Africans, both men and women, engaged in numerous forms of resistance against the plantation system on a daily basis. The specific methods include:
Pretending to be stupid: Also known as "playing fool to catch wise." Some enslaved people played up to the master's opinion of them as child-like or foolish. This allowed them to avoid working efficiently and evade punishment.
Sabotage: This occurred in many forms, including the destruction of estate equipment, tools, and machinery; the maiming of working animals; and the setting of accidental fires. This was particularly common in the sugar factory.
Malingering or "going slow": Enslaved people would work at an unusually slow pace or take a long time to attend to tasks. The goal was to slow down production or frustrate the overseers.
Vendetta: Enslaved individuals tried to frighten their masters using obeah, black magic, hexes, hoaxes, blood feuds, and curses. These activities were intended to upset the smooth running of the plantation.
Suicide: Some enslaved Africans took their own lives to avoid the abuses of slavery. This act was intended to show masters that they had no control over the lives of the enslaved.
Infanticide: Enslaved African women sometimes took the lives of their own children. Mothers felt they were saving their children's innocence from the tortures and abuses of the slavery system.
Abortion: The termination of a pregnancy or unborn fetus. Women would use herbs such as contravera or various other concoctions to force the expulsion of the fetus.
Pretending or feigning illnesses: Enslaved people would constantly claim to be ill, sometimes inventing strange illnesses that were previously unknown.
Feminine complaints: Women were known for faking menstrual cramps and exaggerating symptoms of pregnancy, such as faking labor pains.
Poisoning: Enslaved women, particularly those working as cooks and maids in the Great House, were notorious for poisoning their masters. Because of the medical limitations of the era, it was difficult to determine the cause of death. Women often obtained lethal potions from the obeah man.
Running away (Marronage): The act of running away was divided into two categories:
Petit-marronage: Running away temporarily or for short periods. This might be done to visit a lover or family member, or to deliver items and messages, with the intention of returning to the plantation unnoticed.
Grand-marronage: Running away permanently with no intention of returning. These individuals often joined Maroon settlements hidden in forests or mountains.
Concubinage: Since there was no justice for enslaved women who were raped or sexually assaulted by masters, some used their bodies to wield power. By using their bodies, they could obtain gifts, special favors, or even gain freedom for themselves and their children.
Prolonging weaning of infants: Women would continue to breastfeed infants well past the usual weaning stage, sometimes until the child was four or six years old. This allowed them to avoid work or get extra time off from the fields to stay in their huts and attend to their children.
Self-mutilation: Some enslaved people injured themselves to avoid work, such as constantly re-opening old wounds or inflicting themselves with chiggers.
Communicators: Enslaved women acted as spies or communicators. During Sunday markets, they would pass on messages or vital information to groups like the Maroons to help plan raids or attacks on plantations.
Satire: This form of resistance sought to upset the master or his wife. Women used songs, gestures, body language, and mimicry to tease or laugh at the master’s wife, creating unbearable situations for the victims.
Cultural resistance: Enslaved women passed on African culture and traditions to their children, including songs, stories, and styles of dress.
Insurrectionary Resistance and Notable Revolts
Insurrectionary resistance was a more extreme response to enslavement. While many revolts took place, some were spontaneous and others were well-planned. Significant revolts that impacted the plantation system include:
Tacky's War (Jamaica): Occurred in 1760; Led by Tacky.
The Berbice Rebellion: Occurred in 1763; Led by Cuffy (Kofi).
The Haitian Revolution: Occurred from 1791 to 1804; Led by Toussaint L'Ouverture.
The Barbados Revolt (The Easter Rebellion): Occurred in 1816; Led by Bussa.
The Jamaican Rebellion (The Christmas Rebellion): Occurred from 1831 to 1832; Led by Samuel Sharpe.
The Maroons of Jamaica
Maroons were enslaved Africans who ran away from sugar estates. The success of grand marronage (permanent escape) often depended on the geography of the island.
Geographic Factors: Grand marronage was successful in larger islands like Jamaica due to the presence of hideouts like mountains, forests, and the "cockpit country." In contrast, smaller, relatively flat islands like Barbados provided nowhere to hide.
Maroon Groups in Jamaica:
Windward Maroons: Located on the East of the island.
Leeward Maroons: Located on the West of the island.
Famous Maroon Leaders and Settlements
Notable Leaders:
Queen Nanny: Famous leader of the Windward Maroons in the Blue Mountains.
Captain Cudjoe: Famous leader of the Leeward Maroons in the cockpit country.
Other Leaders: Johnny, Accompong, Quao, Cuffee, and Kissey.
Major Maroon Areas and Towns:
Leeward Areas: Maroon Town, Trelawny Town, Accompong, and the Cockpit Country.
Windward Areas: Nanny Town, New Nanny Town, Moore Town, Charles Town, Scott's Hall, Crawford Town, and Guy's Town.
Other Noted Locations: Montego Bay, Guy's Hill, Cudjoe Hill, Kingston, and Spanish Town.
Map Reference Data:
Scale of Jamaica areas: .