AP Hemangiography Flashcards

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

  • Geography: Study of spatial patterns and processes that shape human understanding of the Earth.
  • Key Concepts in Geography: Location, place, region, scale, space, and connection.
  • Maps: Visual representations of the Earth's surface.
    • Reference Maps: Show locations of places and geographic features.
    • Thematic Maps: Display spatial patterns of demographic, cultural, or other phenomena.
  • Map Projections: Methods of transferring the Earth's curved surface onto a flat map, which inevitably introduce distortion.
    • Common Projections: Mercator, Robinson, Goode Homolosine.
  • Geographic Data:
    • Quantitative Data: Numerical data used in statistical analysis.
    • Qualitative Data: Descriptive data, often based on observations or interviews.
  • Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Computer systems for capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying geographic data.
  • Remote Sensing: Collecting data about the Earth's surface from aerial or satellite imagery.
  • Spatial Analysis: Examining patterns and distributions of geographic phenomena.
  • Scale: Relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole.
    • Map Scale: Ratio between distance on a map and corresponding distance on the ground.
    • Analysis Scale: Level at which data is aggregated (e.g., local, regional, global).
  • Globalization: Increasing interconnectedness of the world through economic, political, and cultural processes.
  • Environmental Determinism: Theory that the environment determines human actions and societal development (largely discredited).
  • Possibilism: Theory that the environment sets certain constraints, but culture is otherwise determined by social conditions.
  • Sustainability: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Unit 2: Population and Migration

  • Demography: Study of population characteristics.
  • Crude Birth Rate (CBR): Number of live births per 1,000 people in a year. CBR = \frac{\text{Number of Births}}{\text{Total Population}} \times 1000
  • Crude Death Rate (CDR): Number of deaths per 1,000 people in a year. CDR = \frac{\text{Number of Deaths}}{\text{Total Population}} \times 1000
  • Natural Increase Rate (NIR): Percentage by which a population grows in a year (excluding migration). NIR = (CBR - CDR) / 10
  • Total Fertility Rate (TFR): Average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years.
  • Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): Number of deaths of infants under one year old per 1,000 live births.
  • Life Expectancy: Average number of years a newborn is expected to live.
  • Demographic Transition Model (DTM): Model showing population change over time as a country develops.
    • Stage 1: High CBR and CDR, low NIR.
    • Stage 2: High CBR, declining CDR, high NIR.
    • Stage 3: Declining CBR, declining CDR, moderate NIR.
    • Stage 4: Low CBR, low CDR, low NIR.
    • Stage 5: CBR lower than CDR, negative NIR.
  • Population Pyramids: Visual representations of a population's age and sex composition.
  • Malthusian Theory: Idea that population growth will outpace food supply.
  • Migration: Movement of people from one place to another.
    • International Migration: Movement across country borders.
    • Internal Migration: Movement within a country.
  • Push Factors: Reasons people leave a place.
  • Pull Factors: Reasons people move to a place.
  • Refugees: People who have been forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of persecution.
  • Asylum Seekers: Migrants who claim refugee status.
  • Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): People who have been forced to migrate within their country.
  • Chain Migration: Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there.
  • Remittances: Money migrants send back to their family and friends in their home countries.
  • Gravity Model: Predicts migration and interaction between places based on population size and distance. \text{Interaction} = \frac{\text{Population}1 \times \text{Population}2}{\text{Distance}^2}

Unit 3: Culture

  • Culture: Shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors transmitted by a society.
  • Cultural Traits: Individual elements of culture, such as language, religion, and customs.
  • Cultural Hearth: Place of origin of a cultural trait.
  • Cultural Landscape: Visible imprint of human activity on the landscape.
  • Ethnicity: Sense of belonging to a group that shares cultural traditions, ancestry, and/or origin.
  • Language: System of communication through speech or writing.
    • Language Family: Group of languages related through a common ancestral language.
    • Dialect: Regional variation of a language.
  • Religion: System of beliefs and practices concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe.
    • Universalizing Religions: Religions that attempt to appeal to all people.
    • Ethnic Religions: Religions that are identified with a particular ethnic or tribal group.
  • Acculturation: Process of adopting the cultural traits of another group.
  • Assimilation: Process of losing distinctive cultural traits and adopting the traits of the dominant culture.
  • Syncretism: Blending of two or more cultures or religions.
  • Multiculturalism: Coexistence of diverse cultures in a society.
  • Cultural Relativism: Understanding a culture on its own terms.
  • Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture.

Unit 4: Political Geography

  • State: An area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its internal and foreign affairs.
  • Sovereignty: Ability of a state to govern itself without interference from other states.
  • Nation: Group of people with a shared culture and history who desire to govern themselves.
  • Nation-State: State whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a particular ethnicity that has been transformed into a nationality.
  • Multinational State: State that contains more than one nation within its borders.
  • Autonomous Region: Area within a state that has a high degree of self-government.
  • Boundary: Invisible line that marks the extent of a state's territory.
    • Physical Boundary: Boundary that coincides with significant features of the natural landscape.
    • Geometric Boundary: Boundary based on straight lines or coordinate systems.
    • Cultural Boundary: Boundary that coincides with differences in ethnicity, language, or religion.
  • Frontier: Zone separating two states in which neither state exercises political control.
  • Colonialism: Effort by one country to establish settlements in a territory and to impose its political, economic, and cultural principles on that territory.
  • Imperialism: Control of a territory already occupied and organized by an indigenous society.
  • Geopolitics: Study of the effects of geography on politics and international relations.
    • Heartland Theory: Theory that whoever controls Eastern Europe controls the world island.
    • Rimland Theory: Theory that whoever controls the coastal rim of Eurasia controls the world island.
  • Supranationalism: Cooperation among states to achieve common goals.
    • Examples: European Union (EU), United Nations (UN).
  • Devolution: Transfer of power from a central government to regional or local governments.
  • Electoral Geography: Study of the spatial aspects of voting systems, voter behavior, and election results.
  • Gerrymandering: Redrawing electoral district boundaries to favor one political party.

Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land Use

  • Agriculture: Modification of Earth's surface through cultivation of plants and rearing of animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain.
  • First Agricultural Revolution: Transition from hunting and gathering to sedentary agriculture.
  • Second Agricultural Revolution: Improvements in agricultural technology and practices that increased food production.
  • Green Revolution: Introduction of high-yield crop varieties and modern agricultural techniques to developing countries.
  • Subsistence Agriculture: Production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer's family.
  • Commercial Agriculture: Production of food primarily for sale off the farm.
  • Intensive Agriculture: High inputs of labor and/or capital per unit of land.
  • Extensive Agriculture: Low inputs of labor and/or capital per unit of land.
  • Agribusiness: System of commercial farming found in developed countries.
  • Agricultural Regions: Areas with similar climate conditions, crops, and farming practices.
  • Von Thünen Model: Model describing the spatial distribution of agricultural activities around a city or market center.
  • Food Desert: Area where access to affordable, healthy food is limited.
  • Sustainable Agriculture: Farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution.
  • Organic Agriculture: Farming methods that avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and genetically modified organisms.

Unit 6: Urban Geography

  • Urbanization: Increase in the percentage of people living in urban areas.
  • Urban Area: Densely populated area with a high concentration of people and activities.
  • Central Place Theory: Theory explaining the size and distribution of cities and towns.
  • Rank-Size Rule: Pattern of settlements in a country, such that the nth largest settlement is 1/n the size of the largest settlement.
  • Primate City: Largest settlement in a country, if it has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement.
  • Urban Models:
    • Concentric Zone Model: Model describing urban land use as a series of concentric rings.
    • Sector Model: Model describing urban land use as a series of sectors radiating from the city center.
    • Multiple Nuclei Model: Model describing urban land use as a collection of activity nodes.
  • Edge Cities: Concentrations of business, shopping, and entertainment outside a traditional downtown area.
  • Suburbanization: Growth of residential areas on the fringes of cities.
  • Gentrification: Process of renovating and improving a deteriorated urban neighborhood by means of an influx of more affluent residents.
  • Urban Sprawl: Unrestricted growth of housing, commercial developments, and roads over large expanses of land.
  • New Urbanism: Planning movement that promotes compact, walkable neighborhoods.
  • Smart Growth: Urban planning that concentrates growth in compact, walkable urban centers to avoid sprawl.

Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Development

  • Economic Development: Improvement in material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology.
  • Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Total value of goods and services produced in a country in a year.
  • Gross National Income (GNI): GDP plus income received from abroad.
  • Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): Adjustment to GNI to account for differences in the cost of goods and services across countries.
  • Human Development Index (HDI): Measure of development that combines economic, social, and demographic indicators.
  • Gini Coefficient: Measure of income inequality within a country (ranges from 0 to 1).
  • Rostow's Stages of Economic Growth: Model describing the stages through which a country progresses as it develops its economy.
  • Dependency Theory: Idea that developing countries are dependent on developed countries for economic support and trade.
  • World Systems Theory: Theory describing the world economy as a core, periphery, and semi-periphery.
  • Industrial Revolution: Series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods.
  • Location Theory: Theory predicting where industries will locate based on factors such as transportation costs, labor costs, and agglomeration.
  • Weber's Least Cost Theory: Model explaining the location of industries based on transportation costs, labor costs, and agglomeration.
  • Agglomeration: Clustering of businesses in a particular area to take advantage of shared resources and infrastructure.
  • Outsourcing: Moving jobs and factories to countries with lower labor costs.
  • Deindustrialization: Decline in industrial employment in developed countries.
  • Free Trade: International trade free of government interference.
  • Fair Trade: Trade that emphasizes equity, fair prices, and safe working conditions.
  • Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.