Ideas

  • Compare Wilson’s Fourteen Points and the Treaty of Versailles – Wilson’s Fourteen Points outlined his vision for a post-war world based on diplomacy, free trade, and self-determination. The Treaty of Versailles, however, focused more on punishing Germany, including heavy reparations and territorial losses. While Wilson's plan sought lasting peace, the treaty created tensions that contributed to World War II.

  • New countries of Europe and Asia – After World War I, the collapse of empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian, and German) led to the creation of new nations such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and others. These new countries were often formed based on ethnic divisions, but tensions remained due to unresolved border disputes and minority populations.

  • Problems with creating countries from different ethnic groups – Many new nations struggled with internal conflicts because different ethnic and religious groups were forced to coexist under artificial borders. Nationalism often led to violence and political instability, as seen in Yugoslavia and the Middle East.

  • Countries that defected/dropped out of war – Russia withdrew from World War I after the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. Italy, though initially allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary, switched sides to join the Allies in 1915.

  • Wilson’s campaign and fight for the League of Nations – Wilson aggressively campaigned for the League of Nations, believing it would prevent future wars. However, opposition in the U.S. Senate, led by isolationists, resulted in the U.S. not joining the League, weakening its effectiveness.

  • New Manifest Destiny (1890s)

    • Purpose – Unlike earlier expansion focused on the continental U.S., the New Manifest Destiny aimed at overseas territories for economic, strategic, and ideological reasons.

    • Philosophy – Influenced by Social Darwinism and the idea of the “White Man’s Burden,” Americans justified expansion as a moral duty.

    • Factors – Economic interests (new markets and raw materials), military strategy (naval bases), and a belief in American superiority all contributed to imperialist policies.

  • Places for expansion (1867-1898)

    • Alaska – Purchased from Russia in 1867, it was initially seen as a "folly" but later proved valuable for resources.

    • Hawaii – Annexed in 1898 after the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani, largely for economic and military purposes.

    • Midway – Claimed in 1867, it became a strategic naval base.

    • American Samoa – Acquired in 1899 through an agreement with Germany and Britain.

    • Puerto Rico – Gained from Spain in 1898 following the Spanish-American War.

    • Philippines – After the Spanish-American War (1898), the U.S. acquired the Philippines, leading to debate over imperialism. Filipino revolutionaries, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, resisted U.S. rule in the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), which resulted in brutal conflict and significant Filipino casualties before the U.S. established control.

    • Guam – Also acquired in the Treaty of Paris (1898), Guam became an important U.S. naval base in the Pacific. It remains an unincorporated U.S. territory and played a crucial role in World War II and later conflicts.

    • Cuba – Though Cuba was not annexed by the U.S., it became a U.S. protectorate under the Platt Amendment (1901), which allowed American intervention in Cuban affairs and granted the U.S. a naval base at Guantánamo Bay. Cuba’s independence was limited until the amendment was repealed in 1934.

  • U.S. Navy rebuilding program – The late 19th century saw a major expansion of the U.S. Navy, influenced by Alfred Thayer Mahan’s book The Influence of Sea Power upon History. The goal was to build a modern fleet capable of protecting overseas territories and asserting U.S. power.

  • Venezuela-British Guiana boundary dispute—solved by how? – This conflict between Venezuela and British Guiana (now part of Guyana) was mediated by the U.S. in 1895 under the Monroe Doctrine. President Grover Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney warned Britain against interference, leading to arbitration. This reinforced U.S. influence in Latin America.

  • McKinley Tariff (1890)—effect on Hawaii – The McKinley Tariff raised import taxes on foreign sugar, hurting Hawaiian sugar growers and increasing U.S. business interest in annexing Hawaii. This led to the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani by American planters and eventual annexation in 1898.

  • U.S. imperialism in 1890s—definition and purpose – U.S. imperialism was the expansion of American influence overseas for economic, military, and ideological reasons. It was driven by:

    • The need for new markets and raw materials.

    • Strategic naval bases to support global power.

    • The belief in American superiority (Social Darwinism & the "White Man’s Burden").

  1. Causes of the Spanish-American War (4) – The war broke out in 1898, largely due to the following causes:

    • Cuban Revolt Against Spain – Cuban rebels had been fighting Spanish colonial rule, and many Americans sympathized with their struggle for independence.

    • Yellow Journalism – Newspapers like The New York Journal (Hearst) and The New York World (Pulitzer) published exaggerated and sometimes false stories about Spanish atrocities in Cuba to stir public outrage.

    • The De Lôme Letter – A Spanish diplomat’s private letter was leaked, calling U.S. President William McKinley "weak," angering Americans.

    • The Sinking of the USS Maine – An explosion in Havana Harbor destroyed the U.S. battleship Maine, killing 260 American sailors. The U.S. blamed Spain (even though the actual cause was unclear), pushing the nation toward war.

  2. Treaty of Paris of 1898—U.S. Acquisitions, Most Serious Issue –

    • This treaty ended the Spanish-American War and resulted in Spain ceding Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the U.S.

    • The most controversial issue was the annexation of the Philippines, as many Americans believed imperialism contradicted U.S. values of democracy and self-determination. The Anti-Imperialist League (including Mark Twain and Andrew Carnegie) opposed the treaty, but it was ultimately ratified in 1899.

  3. Evidence of Spain’s Desire to Avoid War (4) – Spain did not want war with the U.S. and made several attempts to prevent it:

  • Spain offered Cuba autonomy (limited self-rule) to avoid war.

  • Spain agreed to a U.S. ceasefire proposal before Congress declared war.

  • The Spanish government changed leadership in hopes of finding a diplomatic solution.

  • Spain had a weaker navy and military than the U.S. and knew a war would likely result in defeat.

  1. U.S. Motives for Sending Troops to China in 1900 – The U.S. sent troops as part of an international coalition to suppress the Boxer Rebellion, a violent uprising by Chinese nationalists against foreign influence. The U.S. wanted to:

  • Protect American trade interests in China.

  • Support the Open Door Policy, which called for equal trading rights in China.

  • Prevent European powers from taking control of China after the rebellion.

  1. U.S. Involvement and Influence in Latin America and South America in the 1900s – The U.S. expanded its control in the Western Hemisphere using military intervention, diplomacy, and economic influence:

  • Panama – The U.S. backed a revolution against Colombia in 1903 to secure control over the Panama Canal.

  • Colombia – Resisted U.S. actions in Panama but was unable to stop it.

  • Mexico – The U.S. intervened in the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) and sent troops under General Pershing to chase revolutionary leader Pancho Villa.

  • Venezuela – The U.S. helped settle European debt disputes to prevent European military intervention.

  • Nicaragua – The U.S. occupied Nicaragua multiple times to protect American business interests.

  • Haiti & Dominican Republic – The U.S. sent Marines to control political instability, effectively turning these nations into protectorates.

  1. Background Causes for WWI – The long-term causes of World War I are summarized by the acronym MAIN:

  • Militarism – European powers built up massive armies and navies, increasing tensions.

  • Alliances – Complex alliances divided Europe into two rival camps: the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).

  • Imperialism – European nations competed for colonies, particularly in Africa and Asia.

  • Nationalism – Ethnic groups in the Balkans, such as Serbs, Croats, and Bosnians, sought independence from Austria-Hungary, leading to conflicts.

  1. Immediate Cause of WWI – The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austria-Hungary throne, in June 1914 by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, triggering a chain reaction of alliance commitments that led to global war.

  2. Wilson’s Reactions to the Sinking of the Lusitania (1915) –

  • Germany sank the British passenger ship Lusitania, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans.

  • Wilson demanded Germany stop unrestricted submarine warfare and issued warnings, but he kept the U.S. neutral.

  • The event increased anti-German sentiment in the U.S., but it did not immediately lead to war.

  1. Wilson’s and America’s Position Regarding the Outbreak of WWI –

  • Wilson declared neutrality in 1914, urging Americans to remain impartial.

  • However, U.S. trade and loans favored the Allies (Britain & France) over Germany.

  • As the war progressed, Germany’s aggressive submarine warfare pushed Wilson closer to intervention.

  1. U.S. Involvement in WWI (1914-1916) –

  • The U.S. stayed neutral but provided arms and loans to the Allies.

  • Many Americans opposed entering the war, especially German-Americans, Irish-Americans, and isolationists.

  • Wilson campaigned for re-election in 1916 on the slogan “He kept us out of war.”

  1. Wilson’s Stand on Military Preparedness vs. Pacifism (1914-1916) –

  • Wilson originally opposed military expansion and promoted peace.

  • After increased German aggression, he shifted to a preparedness stance, supporting:

    • The National Defense Act (1916) – Expanded the U.S. Army.

    • The Naval Act (1916) – Increased U.S. naval power.

  1. Background Causes of U.S. Entrance into WWI –

  • Economic Ties – The U.S. had strong financial connections to the Allies, making their victory crucial.

  • Unrestricted Submarine Warfare – Germany resumed attacking U.S. ships in early 1917.

  • The Zimmermann Telegram – Germany secretly encouraged Mexico to attack the U.S. in exchange for regaining Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.

  1. Immediate Cause of U.S. Entrance into WWI – The Zimmermann Telegram and unrestricted submarine warfare led Wilson to ask Congress for a declaration of war in April 1917.

  2. Effects of Russian Revolution on WWI – The Bolshevik Revolution (1917) led to Russia exiting the war, allowing Germany to shift its forces to the Western Front, making U.S. intervention more urgent.

  3. Emergency Measures Adopted in U.S. During WWI (4) –

  • War Industries Board – Regulated production and war supplies.

  • Food Administration – Led by Herbert Hoover, encouraged conservation.

  • Espionage & Sedition Acts – Punished anti-war speech and critics of the government.

  • Selective Service Act – Instituted the draft, requiring men to serve in the military.

  1. Groups That Suffered Abuse Due to U.S. Involvement in WWI –

  • German-Americans – Faced discrimination, harassment, and violence.

  • Socialists & Pacifists – Arrested under the Sedition Act for opposing the war.

  1. Wilson’s Fourteen Points – Wilson’s peace plan, advocating for self-determination, free trade, reduced militaries, and the League of Nations.

  2. Why Germany Agreed to Armistice (1918) –

  • German military collapsed under Allied offensives.

  • Revolutions broke out in Germany.

  • American troops overwhelmed German forces.