Global governance all notes
2.2.1 Globalisation, migration and a shrinking world
Global governance is the processes of designing laws, rules or regulations to manage problems that affect more than one state or region
Intergovernmental organisations are groups of countries that work together on issues of global significance such as the UN, EU, NATO, G groups
Migration has become more common due to improvements in technology, transportation, wealth and access to information and happens due to push and pull factors (lee’s model)
Since WWII IGOs have held prominence in deciding the direction of global development. Migration is a global issue that needs managing at different levels from the national to the international
Globalisation is the process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected as a result of massively increased trade and cultural exchange
In 2017 there were 258 million migrants globally
Modern globalisation does differ from the global economy that it preceded it in three important ways. Over time, connections between people and places have
Lengthened- products are shipped greater distances than in the past; migrants and tourists travel longer distances from home
Deepened- more aspects of everyday life have become globally connected (it is difficult to not be connected to other people and places through the products we consume)
Sped up- international migrants can travel quickly between continents using aircraft and can communicate with families at home using technology
Factors affecting globalisation
Social
Impact of western culture through media, sport, leisure and celebrity
Global communications networks
Migration
Political
Growth of western democracies and their influence on poorer countries
Decline of centralised (communist) economies (though communist political control is still strong in china and Russia
Economic
Increase in free trade
Global marketing
Faster cheaper transport
Growth of transnational corporations
Migration- a movement of people from a source area to a receiving area
Emigrants- people who move from or out of an area
Immigrants- people who move into an area
Refugees- people who are forced to migrate owing to a ‘well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or opinion’
The median age of international migrants is 39
Patterns/trends in global migration
In the 1970s and 1980s, international migration was still directed mainly towards developed world destinations eg nyc and Paris. The developed economic core benefited from a brain drain of skilled workers from LICs. Today, developing world cities such as Mumbai, Lagos, Dubai and Riyadh have also begun to function as major global magnets for immigration
Much international migration remains relatively regionalised. In general, the largest labour flows connecting neighbouring countries such as the USA and Mexico, or Poland and Germany
Three theories that attempt to explain the emergence of superpower countries:
Modernisation theory- modernisation theory was used to explain the British Empires dominance of the USA. He believed that economies grew in five stages, with each stage having to be achieved through the use of free trade, capitalism and democracy. As a result he said that the USSR and China could not expect to develop without following this model. As a result developing countries begin to invest in key infrastructure in order to develop
Dependency theory- views the world as having an economically developed core and underdeveloped periphery. He says that the core deliberately exploits the cheap resources in the periphery, which therefore keeps the, in a state of underdevelopment. As a result the core gets wealthier and the periphery remains poor. The core uses aid in order to prevent them from getting restless
World systems theory- created by Wallerstein in an attempt to overcome the problem of a ‘core and periphery world’. The theory views the world as three tiers. It allows some countries to enter the semi-periphery and then the core
2.2.2 Causes of international economic migration
Causes of economic migration include both push and pull factors. Common push factors include poverty, primary commodity prices and poor access to markets
Recent drivers of emigration include diaspora, which are populations that have moved abroad but continue to identify with their source country, and legislation such as the Schengen Agreement
Global superpowers are countries with the ability to project power and influence anywhere on earth, becoming a dominant world force. They use soft power, hard power and smart power to become global hubs and control.
Economic migration is caused by many different factors. People want to move for different reasons, but the legislation/colonial/commonwealth links control these movements
Poverty- movements from worlds poorest countries are rooted in extreme poverty while movements from emerging economies can be explained in terms of relative poverty eg Poland to the uk after 2004
Primary commodity prices- in theory, a country’s primary commodities should provide opportunities for trade. In reality, this does not always happen and prices for raw materials are often low
Poor access to markets- the division of the worlds into large trading blocs is another reason why poverty persists eg influence of EU in protecting farmers by imposing import tariffs on products from outside the bloc
Other factors loading to economic migration:
Development of diaspora communities- diaspora networks are communities who live in countries of likeness to their own but have links to home such as Chinatown in many western cities
Colonial and commonwealth links- between the 1950s and 1970s, the UK received migrants from the Caribbean, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Uganda. Smaller numbers today come from Nigeria, Kenya and other ex-British African territories. Today, these countries are commonwealth members. Migrants come to fill specific gaps in the labour force that opened up after WW2. Sometimes, migrants were recruited directly
There was still a large demand for workers in heavy and light industry, especially in the textile mills of the midlands, Lancashire and Yorkshire. Gaps in skilled labour eg within the NHS, led to many doctors migrating from India, Pakistan and parts of Africa.
Legislation permitting freedom of movement
Within the EU, free movement of labour is permitted. Labour migration flows from eastern and southern Europe are directed towards south England, north France, Belgium and west Germany. (World cities of London, Paris, Brussels and Frankfurt are located here)
Most national border controls within the EU were removed when the Schengen Agreement was implemented in 1995. This allowed easier movement of people and goods within the eu
Global superpowers are countries with the ability to project power and influence anywhere on earth, becoming a dominant worldwide force
Regional superpowers are areas which exert significant influence over their neighbours such as South Africa, australia and Nigeria
Global superpowers can influence the world through culture
Soft power- persuading others through making attractive and appealing policies such as arts and music
Hard power- getting your own way through using force
Smart power- the skillful combined use of both hard and soft power in international relations
China 1000 talents plan- encourages researchers who have studied and settled abroad to return and contribute to scientific development
Schengen Agreement- the EU allows freedom of trade and freedom of movement of people between all member states
Once the A8 states were granted EU membership they were allowed to benefit from the Schengen Agreement
Case study- Crewe
Population of 48,000
In 2001, less than 2% of Crewe’s population were of ethnic minority origin but now more than 6% are polish
Unemployment reached almost 20% in Poland
Offered newcomers £800 a month to take home pay plus plenty of overtime- four times the rate of the same job in Poland
Some migrants were said to have slept in cars, paying a few pounds a week for access to bathrooms
It was not uncommon for 8-10 to be squeezed into run-down terraced houses
Most of the first wave were unmarried men and women, or men who had left their families in Poland
Pressure has grown on the local education system
Half of Crewe’s poles were expected to stay in Britain and half will return home at some stage
Racially motivated incidents have been few
2.2.3 Consequences and management of international economic migration
Remittances are monies sent back to family members who have stayed behind in the country of origin, and they can be a significant proportion of GNP for some countries
Brain drain refers to the situation where the highest skilled and highest qualified people migrate from poorer countries to richer countries where they get paid higher for their skills
Interdependency is the way in which countries rely on each other, it may reduce prospects for geopolitical conflict and deliver mutually shared growth and stability
International economic migration has both positive and negative consequences on both host regions and source regions. It is managed by various migration policies, including the UK and Australia’s point system
Positive effects
Host regions
Fill particular skills shortages
Economic migrants willing to do labouring work that locals may be reluctant to
Working migrants spend their wages on rent, benefitting landlords, and pay tax on legal earnings
Some migrants are ambitious entrepreneurs who establish new businesses employing others
Source regions
In Bangladesh, the value of remittances exceeds foreign investment. Unlike international aid and lending, remittances are a peer-to-peer financial flow; money travels more or less directly from one family member to another. This money flow helps previously been excluded financially from access to education and healthcare
In time, migrants or their children may return, bringing new skills
Negative effects
Host regions
Social tensions arise if citizens of the host country believe migration has led to a lack of jobs or affordable housing
Local shortages of primary school places due to natural increase among a youthful migrant community. This places a financial burden on local authorities
Employers may favour using migrants instead of native workers; working class communities may suffer from unemployment as a result
Source regions
The economic loss of a generation of Human Resources, schooled at government expense, including key workers such as teachers and computer programmers. Poland has lost young people every year since the 1960s
The increase in the proportion of aged dependents creates a long term economic challenge
There is reduced economic growth as consumption falls (especially urban services and entertainment for a young adult market)
There is no guarantee that remittences will continue to be sent home in the long term
Remittances are a major contributor to the economies of some countries. Around USD$500 billion of remittances are currently sent home by migrants annually. This is a positive for source nations but a negative for host nations as the money is then leaving their economy
Interdependency can strengthen the friendship between states. This may reduce prospects for geopolitical conflict and deliver mutually shared growth and stability instead. It may also present risks as the political and economic state of host countries can change and have an impact on source nations. In some cases it has given rise to increased levels of nationalism and public interest in sovereignty
Some LICs such as Nepal and Haiti see more than 20% of their total GDP come from remittances
Case study USA:
The beginning of the 1990s brought significant from the former socialist countries of Eastern Europe.
The prospect of jobs and much higher standard of living is also the main motivation of the tens of thousands of illegal immigrants who annually attempt to enter the USA
The average of foreign-born population per state is 7.9%, however 10 states are above average
Most of these locations are coastal, meaning that they aren’t a desert climate, and they are also typically areas with good educational prospects
Can be used as an example of brain drain as many immigrants are highly skilled workers from countries such as Ghana, Sudan and Uganda
2.2.4 Causes, consequences and management of refugee movements
A refugee is someone who has been driven out of their source country due to fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion
Internally displaced people are those who forced to leave their homes and seek refuge, but have not crossed any borders to do so
Refugee movements can have both positive and negative impacts such as socioeconomic impacts, impact on neighbouring countries, and impacts on developed countries
Refugees arriving in another country must apply for asylum when they arrive and prove that their lives were genuinely at risk. EU states have struggled to come to an agreement on where refugees arriving in Italy/Greece should end up
Refugees are people who have been forced to leave their country. They are defined and protected under international law, and must not be expelled or returned to situations where their life and freedom are at risk
Internally displaced persons- people who have not crossed a border to find safety
Many current refugee flows can be explained by events in the past, including the way African and Middle Eastern states were created under colonial rule. Some of these include:
Struggles for power between different ethnic groups eg the Tutsi and Hutu tribes in DRC, Rwanda and Uganda
Land grabbing by domestic industries and MNCs, governments and individuals. In some instances, land is simply seized from vulnerable groups by powerful forces and not paid for such as Palestine, areas of Uganda, Amazonian tribes
Draught and climate change, leading to land grabbing in Sudan’s semi-arid darfur region
EU refugee movements:
Eu states have struggled to reach a political agreement on where refugees arriving in Greece or Italy should be allowed to settle once their asylum claim has been accepted. Under EU rules, any asylum claims must be processed in the country where refugees arrive. However, neither the Greek or Italian governments want large numbers of refugees to settle there permanently. Both countries want to see the burden of resettlement shared with other EU members. Consequently, EU states have struggled to reach an agreement on how best to distribute refugees among themselves. In recent years, Germany has taken in more refugees than any other state; in 2015 alone, the total received was 1.1 million. In contrast, Ireland received just over 2000 (which is far lower in proportion to its population)
Consequences of refugee movement
Socioeconomic impacts- risks related to living in camps where violence and rape occur, where there are no jobs and children cease to be educated. Camp dwellers are also vulnerable to attacks from outside the camp such as from the terroirs group Boko Haram in African refugee camps
Impact on neighbouring states- more than 10% of all refugees live in fragile states or situations (almost all of whom happen to be in bordering countries), and a further 8.75% in low income countries (again, mostly in bordering countries). This leaves the host countries even more vulnerable economically as they are forced to support the refugees
Impacts on developed countries- with over 1 million migrants travelling across the Mediterranean, the coast guards struggle to cope. 800 people died when a boat capsized in rough seas off the Italian coast near Lampedusa in April 2015. Financial costs are also an issue. It is estimated to cost £15,000 a year to cater for the needs of one recently arrived refugee who may be recovering from severe physical or psychological harm. It’s not all negative though, long term refugees more often make a larger contribution to society that supports them than they take from it.
Malthus and Bosserup
Malthus- theory states that food production will not be able to keep up with growth int he human population, resulting in disease, famine, war and calamity
Bosserup- thought that however big the world’s population grew people would always produce sufficient food to meet their needs
UN 2030 agenda for sustainable development says countries must have an orderly, safe and responsible policy for migration
Out of the 20 countries with most living abroad 15 have a policy to encourage nationals to return home including Mexico, Poland and China.
Australias migration policy:
Has a points based system to help them manage migration effectively and hope to avoid some of the negative consequences of unchecked migration we have already discussed
To comply with UN requirements but also to encourage migrants with relevant skills, demographic and experience that are the most beneficial to Australia
UKs policy
Changed after brexit
Points based system similar to australia’s, looks for skilled economic migrants
2.2.5 Causes, consequences and management of rural-urban migration in developing countries
Rural-urban migration is the movement of people from not he countryside to the city, causing urban growth, urbanisation and the creation of megacities
Export processing zones (EPZs) are industrial areas specially set up by governments to attract foreign investment and to create employment
Multinational companies (MNC/TNCs) play a large role in rural-urban migration in LICs. They have moved factories and offices abroad to take advantage of cheaper labour costs (offshoring) and outsource production using foreign companies
Rural-urban migration has many different causes such as EPZs, TNCs, famine, employment, poor living conditions, etc, and results in urban growth and urbanisation
Push factors include:
Famine, drought and natural disasters
Poor living conditions- housing, education and healthcare
Agricultural change
Unemployment
Pull factors
Better healthcare and education
Urban facilities and way of life
Employment
Higher incomes
Protection from conflict
EPZs (export processing zones) which often have numerous employment opportunities in one region
Case study- Chittagong zone Bangladesh- workers work for approximately $1.50 a day
137 factories, exports are $1.6bn
Creation of shanty towns
Housing- is often a collection of primitive shacks made from any available material. Most houses lack such basic amenities as electricity, gas, running water and sewage. No refuse collection
Health- lack of clean water, no disposal of human waste and rubbish lead to disease. Can’t afford doctors
Education- is limited as there are very few schools. Many, even by the age of 6, are trying to earn some money.
Transport- earth tracks that often just fill up with rubbish. Few public transport systems
Family life- is under constant threat. The factors listed above can lead to the breakdown of marriages. Increase in crime and ‘street children’
2.2.6 Global governance of the Earth’s oceans
Global commons were the things that are important on a global scale level, including the Earth’s shared resources such as the high oceans, atmosphere, outer space, the Antarctic and cyberspace (the internet)
The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is the area, up to 200 nautical miles from a country’s coastline where the country has the right to control activity in this region
Supranational- having power or influence that transcends national boundaries or governments
Government often refers to the governing body itself, while governance often refers to the act of governing, so members of a government are engaged in governance
Who is involved in governing the oceans
The United Nations (UN) is the central organisation responsible for setting the guidelines on the governance of the oceans
The international maritime organisation (IMO) is the UN division for ensuring the safety and security of shipping, specifically
Every country has a stake in managing the oceans because the UN is made up ‘member-states’ who help reach the international policies that have come to govern the uses of the oceans
At a national level, the Royal Navy or UUS coastguard will be responsible for ensuring the seas are secure and used fairly by everyone. The maritime coastguard agency (MCA), for example, helps to ensure that ships travelling in international waters do so safely, following navigational rules and in accordance with rules concerning pollution
Charitable organisations, for example the Migrant Offshore Aid Programme
There are also protest groups, such as Greenpeace and Sea Shephers. These organisations have been powerful in opposing a range of activities at sea- from commercial whaling to nuclear testing
Laws governing the oceans
UNCLOS- UN convention on the laws of the Sea
Territorial sea- 12 nautical miles
Contiguous zone- 13-24 nautical miles
EEZ- 200 nautical miles
High seas- beyond 200 nautical miles
The EU’s laws on Europe’s waters are known as the marine detective
In what ways do the oceans have strategic value
Oil transit chokepoints- eg Panama Canal, the strait of Hormuz and the strait of Malacca
The ‘international community’ work together to keep the chokepoints open, avoid accidents and terrorist attacks and this reduces the volatility in the oil market
Superpowers can excerpt significant influence over oceans
Piracy hotspots:
97% of recent piracy took place in the Gulf of Guinea
East and west coasts of central Africa
Coasts of south/SE Asia
Northern coasts of South America
Close to oil transit chokepoints
Panama Canal- shortened distance from west to USA by 8000 nautical miles
Suez Canal- reduced distance around Africa by around 10 days
Ever given container ship- got stuck, causing loss of $9 billion/day and no vessels able to pass for around 6 days
2.2.7 Global flows of shipping and sea cables
Changing trends of patterns, networks and regulation of shipping including containers and oil tankers
Flows of air transport and shipping into North America and Western Europe are well established (to urban areas)
Shipping routes mainly coming out of SE Asia travelling west
Africa and S.America seeing the least transport links to elsewhere
Nodes- specific points on networks
Hubs- a node that is especially well connected
How is shipping regulated (examples)
Controls on cleaning- under UNCLOS, it is illegal for ships that have recently delivered oil to use seawater to wash out their tanks
SOLAS (safety of life at sea) convention is to specify minimum standards for the construction, equipment and operation of ships, compatible with their safety. For example, single-hulled oil tankers were phased out after the prestige sank off the coast of Spain in 2002
The international conventions for the prevention of pollution from ships (MARPOL) is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes
Main reason for increased shipping flows- containerisation. Ships are increasing in speed, size, design and levels of automation. The eas with which goods can be brought by ship has meant the industry has grown exponentially. The recession affects a number of companies as the ships were built faster than the demand. In 2016, Hanjin, the worlds 7th largest operator filed for bankruptcy
Illegal migrant flows
Smuggling is the voluntary, illegal entry people into areas to gain employment
Trafficking is the forced movement of people for the purposes of exploitation
The lines are often blurred between smuggling and trafficking because people often volunteer initially only to become victims of persecution and exploitation
Illegal migrant flows are costly to the governments of host countries and difficult to prosecute perpetrators due to the low-risk/high-benefit nature of the crime
A supra-natural approach must be taken if these crimes are to be discovered and punished and to prevent this industry from growing
There is a huge system of fibre-optic cables lying underneath the world’s oceans
The first transatlantic communications cable was completed in the summer of 1858, running under the ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland
There are nearly 350 cables- some cross oceans, others follow coasts down along continents. The whole network of submarine cables spans more than 550,000 miles
Cables are covered in steel armour and buried beneath the seafloor at their shore-ends, where the human threat is most concentrated
Issues include- illegal interception and espionage which can fuel conflicts (Cold War), damage by animals, ships anchors (and fishing trawlers) and environmental concerns
90% of world trade carried by sea
Increasing globalisation has seen a 400% increase in numbers of ships at sea since the 1990s
Case study Maersk
An MNC with over 25000 employees and individually generates 20% of Denmark's GDP
Worlds largest container ship was the Maersk majestic
2.2.8 Sovereignty of ocean resources
Sovereign rights- the rights of any state to exercise power over lands and people within that state
Coastal countries may claim sovereign rights over their EEZ (200 nautical miles) but these claims may be contested
EEZs overlap sometimes when two states lie close to one another. The Sea of Japan (bordered by japan, South Korea, and china is a case in point
Some states own overseas territories and may claim an EEZ around these. Since 1994, the international seabed authority (ISA) have helped states legally use the resources beyond their own EEZ
Biotic resources:
Fish and other sea life
Plant life such as seaweed/kelp used in cosmetics
Abiotic resources
Iron, copper, zinc and gold are found in the Pacific Ocean, along the east pacific rise and the mid-Atlantic ridge, black smokers produce iron-rich sulfides
Manganese nodules are dense lumps of manganese, iron, silicates and hydroxides, ranging from golf ball to tennis ball sized. In the eastern Pacific Ocean, manganese nodules cover an area of the sea floor the size of Europe.
Cobalt crusts for at depths of around 1-3km on the flanks of submarine volcanoes in tectonically active regions (South Pacific)
Hydrocarbons- oil and gas
Contention over the arctic
2002: Canada reccomenced military exercises in the arctic that are now conducted annually
2003-2007: Norway built five Fridtjof Nansen class frigates to navigate the polar channels
2007: Russian submarine planets a Russian flag at the North Pole and Russia restarted long-range arctic bomber patrols
2009: USA released its national arctic policy placing arctic security as the number one priority
2009: Denmark published plans to create both an arctic military command and an arctic response force
2012: a Chinese icebreaker, the xuelong, navigated the northern sea route for the first time
Landlocked states
Of the 15 lowest ranked countries by HDI, landlocked counties account for 8
GDP of landlocked countries is 40% lower than their maritime neighbours
Handicapped in transporting goods and rely on ‘transit states’
Transit states have little incentive to build infrastructure to help landlocked countries
Border officials often extract bribes and cause delays- less than half the rate of progress per day than in coastal states
Enterprises in landlocked states are regarded high risk due to interruptions in commerce so the flow of people and ideas that brought innovation to maritime countries largely bypassed landlocked countries
Successful countries exchange goods that either don’t travel (finance) or small high-end goods (watches- Switzerland), Botswana- diamonds that are easily transported by plane
A strike by Chilean customs in 2013 caused a queue of lorries 12km long in Bolivia
Bolivia’s GDP estimates to be 20% higher if they had access to the sea
Case study- South China Sea
11 billion barrels of oil
190³ of gas
10% of worlds fishing
China claims they have a historical claim however they are keeping to their original border rather than the EEZ
Trade amounts to $3.37 trillion in 2016
Case study- Arctic resources
30% of gas
13% of oil
As the ice melts, fossil fuels are easier to access
Recently a passage became ice free, meaning ships saved millions, however this creates international waters
2.2.9 Managing marine environments
Global commons- resource domains outside the political reach of any one country. These include the high seas, outer space, the atmosphere and Antarctica. Global commons also include supranational domains like the internet. These commons must be managed at a supranational level which is challenging. 60% of the earths oceans fall into ABNJ (Area Beyond National Jurisdiction)
2050 is the year experts say world fisheries expect to collapse
80% the worlds fish stocks are already fully exploited
300,000 whales and dolphins are killed each year via by-catch
1/5 of figh are caught illegally raking in an estimated $50B a year
90% of predatory fish are gone
8M square miles- the great pacific garbage patch is 2x larger than the US
Causes of overexploitation:
Invasive species- another rising pressure linked with global economic development. Stowaway species have been brought into foreign waters and this has sometimes meant species have suffered due to better hunters
Technological advances- sonar, the use of longlining and huge factory ships have made catching huge volumes of fish much easier, thus threatening fish stocks
Rising affluence- mainly as a result of global trade, prosperity is rising in the BRICS snuff MINT groups of countries. Around 1 billion people have gained ‘middle class’ status in the last 30 years. This has seen a rise in the demand for fuels, and diets higher in meat and fish
China has seen alarming trends in the rise of exploiting exotic species as wealth increase. Sharks, turtles and tuna are officially endangered as a result of such trends
Population growth- global exponential increase means greater demand for resources
Overfishing- in 1993, the North Cod Fishery in Newfoundland, Canada collapsed because of overfishing
Approximately 40,000 jobs were lost
A billion people rely on fish as their main source of protein
The market war is a dispute between Britain (backed by the EU and Norway) and the combined forces of Iceland and the Faroe Islands which began in 2010. Unlike the cod wars which was about territory and fishing grounds the makrel war was about the size of catches and quotas that countries are allowed to take from areas where they are permitted to fish. Despite being dubbed the ‘makrel war’ this particular war did not see any warships mobilise or direct conflict. An agreement was reached to bring the makrel war to an end in 2014
Sustainable management of marine environments
Reduction fo fishing effort- lamlash no-take zone, Isle of Arran
Limiting fish size taken- EU rulings specifying minimum net sizes to prevent ‘growth overfishing’
Elimination of subsidies to unsustainable commercial fisheries- UN committed to eradicating subsidies by 2021
Kuznetsk curve allows us to see the changes in rates of environmental degradation as a country develops. As more nations grow and reach a post-industrial economy, environmental degradation should decrease.
Case study- lamlash bay
Factory fishing led to depletion of fish stocks
Fall of 96%
No take zone resulted in 50% higher biodiversity 10 years on
2.2.10 Managing ocean pollution
The role of ocean currents in ocean pollution
The circular currents of the oceans (clockwise inch the northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere), known as surface gyres, are thought to be the main cause of ocean waste transportation. The gyres are particularly responsible for transporting waste to islands and coral atolls
The great pacific garbage patch- a collection fo marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean. Marine debris is litter that ends up in oceans, seas, and other large bodies of water. The entire great pacific garbage patch is bounded by the North Pacific subtropical gyre. It is approximately the size of Texas and not just larger pieces of plastic- scientists have collected up to 750,000 bits of microplastic in a single square kilometre- that’s about 1.9 million bits per square mile
Eutrophication is also a huge issue for oceans. Eutrophication can lead to marine dead zones around the world’s coastal margins- japan and the Gulf of Mexico are particularly badly affected
Managing ocean pollution at different scales:
Global- states bound by UNCLOS rules are not allowed to dump waste deliberately at sea
National and regional- state governments are now using legsislation to reduce the use of throwaway plastic that can accidentally pollute the oceans. Bangladesh have banned single use bags, the UK charge for them and the USA have banned microbeads
Local actions include raising awareness, encouraging use of sustainable materials, going ‘zero waste’ and public campaigns
Case study- Australia’s Great Barrier Reef
Main issue- coral bleaching as well as
Mass extinctions
Pollution
Mass tourism
Overpopulation of the surrounding area
When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white. This is in part due to global warming but also as an adverse side effect of El Niño where sea surface temperatures change adversely and this happens periodically every 2-7 years
The Great Barrier Reef is recognised as a UNESCO marine heritage site (case study)
UNESCO has put the GBR on the world heritage list, inspiring other players to protect it
Global media raise awareness of the need to protect the reef; the BBC filmed a series about it in 2015
The Australian government pledged to spend £600 million in 2016 to improve the water quality around the reef
Australian universities, including the institute of marine science and James cook university, research how to conserve the reef
Tourist industries and workers put pressure on the government to ensure the reef is managed sustainably to give long-term environmental, economic and social benefits
The GBR foundation charity was established in response to a UNESCO appeals for citizens to raise money to protect heritage site