The Spanish-American War and American Expansionism
Chapter 19: The Spanish – American War
Sources
American History: Connecting with the Past (Fifteenth Edition)
Give Me Liberty!: An American History (Third Edition)
American Pageant (Fourteenth Edition)
America: A Concise History (Fourth Edition)
The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power
America in the World: A History of U.S. Diplomacy and Foreign Policy
For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States
The Four Ages of American Foreign Policy
The True Flag: Theodore Roosevelt, Mark Twain, and the Birth of American Empire
The Roots of 20th Century U.S. Foreign Policy
The Spanish-American War of 1898
Americans have historically debated the United States' role in international affairs.
**Key Questions: **
Should the U.S. defend its freedoms or ignore external threats?
Should it intervene violently in foreign conflicts or allow nations to determine their own paths?
This debate finds its roots in the Spanish-American War, marking a pivotal moment in America’s global involvement.
The war symbolizes the beginning of America’s deep engagement with international affairs.
Contextualization for American Expansionism
The “New Manifest Destiny”
Territorial expansion has been a consistent aspect of American history prior to the 1890s.
Example of Early Expansion: The Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican Cession.
The 1890s signify a notable transition in U.S. foreign relations, reflecting increased global aspirations.
European Imperialism and the Industrial Revolution
European imperial pursuits significantly influenced global dynamics.
The Industrial Revolution amplified disparities in power between nations.
European empires leveraged advanced technologies for war and transportation, enhancing their imperial extensions in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.
The awareness of competitive expansion among empires prompted nations to race for dominance.
The Depression of 1893
The U.S. experienced its most severe economic downturn in 1893.
Consequences: Bank failures, business collapses, unemployment spikes, and widespread unrest.
Political and business leaders considered overseas markets as an outlet to alleviate social pressures domestically.
American producers needed new markets to address surplus in goods.
American Expansionism and National Identity
American expansionism was fueled by a mix of ideologies including Manifest Destiny, Darwinism, and militaristic values.
The closure of the American frontier raised concerns about national stability and economic wellbeing.
Policymakers sought commercial, rather than territorial expansion, to find new markets and counter domestic unrest.
Arguments for U.S. Expansion
Key Concept 6.1: I E: Senator Albert J. Beveridge (1898) argued:
"American factories are making more than the American people can use; American soil is producing more than they can consume. Fate has written our policy for us; the trade of the world must and shall be ours… We will establish trading posts throughout the world as distributing points for American products…"
Pro-Expansionists: Alfred T. Mahan
Key Concept 7.3: I A
Alfred Thayer Mahan's work, The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1783, emphasized:
Control of the sea as essential for global dominance.
Nations required a substantial naval fleet for security and international trade.
Impact of Mahan's Ideas
Mahan’s theories influenced U.S. naval policy, leading to fleet modernization in preparation for international competition and warfare, particularly evident in the Spanish-American War.
Contextualization for Military Preparedness
European Rivalries
American military preparedness was fueled by fears of rising global competition, especially among imperial powers:
The introduction of advanced warships made military operations feasible across oceans.
Nationalism heightened tensions, where even minor conflicts could escalate into larger wars due to public sentiment and political pressures.
Causes of the Spanish-American War (1898)
Key Concept 7.3: I A
Economic Interests in Cuba: American businesses' demand for access to Cuban resources, especially sugar.
De Lome Letter: A Spanish diplomat's disparaging letter about President McKinley stirred American anger upon publication.
U.S.S. Maine Explosion: A naval disaster in Havana Harbour resulted in the deaths of 250 American soldiers and incited public fervor for war.
Yellow Journalism: Competing newspapers used sensationalism to amplify public support for intervention.
Effects of the Spanish American War (1898)
Key Concepts 6.1: I E and 7.3: I C
The war marked the U.S.'s emergence as a global power:
Territorial Gains:
Annexation of Puerto Rico → bolstered U.S. influence in the Caribbean.
Control of Guam as an unincorporated U.S. territory.
Control of the Philippines → established a U.S. military foothold in the eastern Pacific.
Possible Analysis Point: The parallels drawn between the Spanish-American War and the Iraq War; both wars were not essential for national security but framed around humanitarian pretexts.
Cuba and the Platt Amendment
Key Concept 7.3: I C
The Platt Amendment (1901) was enacted to protect U.S. interests in Cuba post-occupation:
Required Cuban approval for international treaties and mandates low foreign debt.
Allowed U.S. military intervention for protection of life and property.
Facilitated U.S. establishment of a naval base at Guantanamo Bay (1903), undermining Cuban sovereignty.
Annexation of Hawaii (July of 1898)
Key Concepts 6.1: I E and 7.3: I A
The annexation of Hawaii, while not directly part of the Spanish-American War, involved the ousting of Queen Liliuokalani by Sanford B. Dole with U.S. military support due to its strategic location.
Historical context resembles that of Texas's earlier annexation.
Open Door Policy in China
Key Concept 7.3: I C
The Open Door Policy: initiated by Secretary of State John Hay (1899-1900) advocating for:
Equal trading rights in China for all nations and preservation of China's territorial integrity.
Three fundamental principles outlined in Hay's Open Door Note:
Recognition of treaty ports and interests by all powers.
Equal application of Chinese tariffs.
No preferential treatment for any nation regarding fees.
Significance of Open Door Policy
The policy allowed U.S. access to Chinese markets, though it was met with resentment from many Chinese anti-imperialist factions.
The U.S. sought to prevent formal colonial divisions of China, contrary to actions taken by Japan and European powers.
Perspectives on the Open Door Policy
Key Concept 7.3: I C
Scholars debate the Open Door Policy's implications:
Neo-Marxist View: Interprets the policy as a method of exerting American economic power without traditional colonialism.
Another perspective sees the policy as promoting equality of access, setting America apart from conventional imperialist powers.
The Insular Cases
The Foraker Act (1900) granted Puerto Rico a degree of political autonomy while ensuring U.S. influence remained.
Insular Cases established that the U.S. Constitution does not automatically apply to territories under U.S. governance overseas.
Policies often favored local elites, contributing to socioeconomic hardships for the rural populace.
Chapter 19: The Philippines War
Sources
Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire
The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power
For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States
The Four Ages of American Foreign Policy
The True Flag: Theodore Roosevelt, Mark Twain, and the Birth of American Empire
U.S. Expansionism: Republic or Empire?
Key Concept 7.3: I A, B
Pro-Expansionism Arguments:
Economic security needs and the notion that failure to expand equates to losing the frontier spirit.
Social Darwinism rationalized resource claims of stronger nations.
Missionary roles to convert foreign peoples.
Anti-Expansionism Arguments:
Viewed as contradictory to foundational American ideals of liberty.
Concerns regarding racial implications and the financial burden of imperialism.
The Philippines War (1899-1903)
Key Concept 7.3: I C
Spain ceded the Philippines to the U.S. post-war under the Treaty of Paris, driven by commercial interests and strategic fears regarding rival powers.
Conflict erupted as Filipino nationalists, led by Emilio Aguinaldo, opposed U.S. control despite previous promises of independence.
The Philippine-American War lasted three years, resulting in significant casualties: over 4,200 American troops and 20,000 Filipino combatants, with civilian deaths possibly reaching 200,000 due to conflict-related factors.
American Opposition to U.S. Rule in the Philippines
Opposition varied from moral opposition to concerns about racial integration into American governance.
Media reports exposed the harsh realities of the conflict: atrocities against villagers and other war crimes tarnished America's self-proclaimed image as liberators.
Possible Analysis Point: Comparing The Philippines War and the War in Iraq
Both President McKinley and President Bush addressed fervent patriotism while seeking new markets abroad.
Each believed the U.S. mission was to spread democracy, underestimating local sentiments.
Both administrations faced scrutiny regarding adherence to war laws and the treatment of prisoners.
Characteristic Phases of American Overseas Experiences
Impressive military successes in initial phases.
Misjudged understanding of local sentiments.
Limited war strategies escalating into more extensive conflicts.
Disillusionment at home following prolonged violence.
Premature efforts at democratization.
Domestic economic factors gaining precedence.
Ultimately leading to withdrawal from engagements.