AP Government Study Guide Notes

The Enlightenment Period

• The Enlightenment period greatly influenced the making of the American government.

• Famous philosophers of the Enlightenment include John Locke, John-Jacques Rousseau, and Thomas Hobbes.

• Important ideas from this period:

  • Social Contract: An agreement between the government and the governed where the governed give up some natural rights in exchange for government protection and benefits.

  • Natural Rights: Rights given to every person that cannot be taken away by the government. Violation of these rights gives the people the right to revolt.

  • Popular Sovereignty: The idea that the people should have the main voice in the government, holding the government accountable.

  • Republicanism: A limited representative form of government.

Models of Democracy

• America is a democracy with aspects of different models of representative democracy:

  • Participatory Democracy: Citizens have the power to decide on policies, which politicians then implement.

  • Pluralist Democracy: Different groups compete for influence in the government, preventing any single group from dominating policymaking.

  • Elite Democracy: A small group of wealthy, well-educated people makes decisions for everyone.

Articles of Confederation

• The United States initially used the Articles of Confederation, which resulted in a weak national government and disunited states.

• The Framers created this system due to their experience with the abusive monarchy of King George III, wanting safeguards against government abuse.

• Shay’s Rebellion: A violent revolt of farmers led by Daniel Shay highlighted weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation due to the government’s lack of control.

• Weaknesses:

  • Each state was highly independent with its own currency, leading to interstate conflicts.

  • Congress could not levy taxes, underfunding the national government.

  • Congress could not regulate commerce.

  • Each state had one vote in Congress.

  • No executive branch existed to enforce decisions.

  • Amendments required a 13/13 vote, and laws required a 9/13 vote to pass.

  • States could tax other states’ goods.

  • Almost every state had its own militia.

• The transition to the Constitution faced opposition. Federalists supported ratification, while Anti-Federalists opposed it, fearing excessive power for the national government.

  • The Federalist and Anti-Federalist papers reflect these debates about the structure of the American government.

• The U.S. now operates on a Madisonian representative democracy with the following principles:

  • Federalism: Shared powers between national, state, and local governments.

  • Checks and Balances: Systems preventing the government from abusing its power.

    • Ex: The presidential veto checks the legislative branch by requiring presidential approval for laws.

  • Separation of Powers: Authority divided among different branches of government.

  • Popular Sovereignty: The power resides in the people.

  • Limited Government: The government is restricted by a written document, the Constitution.

Compromises in the Ratification of the Constitution

• The Great (Connecticut) Compromise: Merged the Virginia and New Jersey plans, creating a bicameral legislature with representation based on population in one house and equal representation in the other.

• The Electoral College: A body that determines how the President and Vice President are elected. Electors from each state vote, with the number of electors determined by the state's representation in Congress.

• Three-Fifths Compromise: Each slave counted as $3/5$ of a person for determining representation in Congress.

• Compromise on the Importation of Slaves: No new slaves could be imported into America after 1808.

Constitutional Basis of Federalism

• Enumerated Powers: Powers explicitly given to Congress in the Constitution.

• Implied Powers: Powers not expressed but understood as given to the federal government.

• Inherent Powers: Powers of the President.

• Reserved Powers: Powers reserved for the states (10th Amendment).

• Privileges and Immunities Clause: States cannot discriminate against people based on their state of origin.

  • (Ex: Tax rates cannot differ for non-citizens of states).

• Full Faith and Credit Clause: States must trust documents from other states.

  • (Ex: Driver's licenses, Marriage).

• Extradition: If a crime is committed and the perpetrator flees to another state, that state must return them to the state where the crime was committed.

• The 10th Amendment reserves powers not given to the federal government to the states.

• The 14th Amendment gives the federal government power by stating that states cannot make laws abridging citizens’ rights, allowing the federal government to decide which state laws do so.

Federalism in Action

• Fiscal Federalism

  • Grants-in-aid: Money given to the states by the federal government that does not have to be paid back.

  • Categorical Grants: Grants given to states for a specific purpose.

  • Block Grants: Grants given to states for broad use.

  • Mandates: Requirements by the federal government for states to do something.

• Dual Federalism (1789-1932): The federal and state governments are independent with separate duties.

• Cooperative Federalism (1933-1962): Levels of government work together to achieve goals.

• New Federalism (1963-Present): Includes fiscal federalism and devolution, returning power to the states instead of centralized federalism.

Key Federalism Clauses

• Commerce Clause: The government can regulate interstate commerce.

• Necessary and Proper Clause: The government can stretch its enumerated powers to perform its job.

Key Federalism Cases

• McCulloch v. Maryland: Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the United States. McCulloch argued the bank was constitutional under the necessary and proper clause, and the Supreme Court agreed, also citing the supremacy clause to invalidate Maryland's tax.

• United States v. Lopez: The Supreme Court ruled that the Gun-Free School Zones Act was unconstitutional because guns were not related to commerce, limiting Congress's power under the commerce clause.

Key Federalism Legislation

• Unfunded Mandates Reform Act: Legislation to minimize the effect of unfunded mandates on state and local governments.

• Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program: Provides money for low-income families for food (food stamps).

• Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF): A temporary social welfare program providing money for basic needs but requiring beneficiaries to participate in work preparation programs.

• National Voter Registration Act (Motor Voter Act): Allowed people to register to vote when they got their driver's license and required states to develop a mail voter registration option to make it easier for people to vote.

• Clean Air Act: Established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and standards for hazardous emissions, requiring states to meet these standards while giving citizens the right to sue violators.

• Americans with Disabilities Act: Stopped discrimination against people with disabilities and mandated accommodations in educational institutions and workplaces.

• Brady Bill: Reduced gun violence by requiring federal background checks when buying firearms.

• No Child Left Behind Act: Provided money to low-income students for extra assistance.

Article One of the Constitution - The Legislative Branch

• Congress is a bicameral legislature (Senate and House of Representatives) created by the Great Compromise.

• Many powers not given to the federal government under the Articles of Confederation were given to Congress in the Constitution.

• Each chamber of Congress has different powers.

• Enumerated powers of Congress are listed in Article 1.

Structure of Congress

Senate

• Senators are elected for 6-year terms (1/3 up for reelection at a time) due to the 17th amendment.

• Each state has 2 senators.

• The Senate is the upper house and confirms presidential appointments, ratifies treaties, and holds impeachment trials.

House of Representatives

• State representation is determined by the census every 10 years.

• Representation is determined by the number of people in each district.

• Representatives are up for reelection every two years.

• The House can impeach public officers and introduce tax and revenue bills.

Introducing Bills and Creating Laws

• A bill can be introduced in either chamber (except appropriation bills, which are only introduced in the House).

• The bill goes to a committee, which votes on whether it will be voted on by the whole chamber.

  • If the bill dies in committee, a motion to discharge the committee can be filed.

Senate Procedures

• After a bill comes out of committee, it goes straight to the Senate floor for debates.

• To end the debate, all Senators have to vote on the bill (unanimous consent).

• Senators can filibuster to prevent a bill from going to vote. Cloture must be done to end a filibuster.

House Procedures

• Debates in the House are more formal due to more members.

• A bill out of committee goes to the Rules Committee.

• The Rules Committee decides if a bill will be voted on as a Committee of the Whole or as the House of Representatives.

Important Vocabulary in Law-Making

• Filibuster: A member holds the Senate floor to prevent a bill from going to vote.

• Cloture: Ends a filibuster with $3/5$ (60) of the Senate’s votes.

• Rules Committee: Decides how a proposed bill will be voted on and debated.

• Committee of the Whole: Simplifies the rules of debate and opens the conversation.

• Discharge Petition: Filed to get a bill out of the committee and take it straight to the floor.

Types of Committees

• Standing: Always in operation (ex: Ways and Means Committee).

• Conference: Members from both the Senate and the House iron out differences in similar legislation.

• Select: Created for a specific purpose and will eventually end.

• Joint: Members from both the Senate and the House are created for a specific reason.

Congressional Spending

• Discretionary Spending: Programs in which Congress and the President have to renew spending every year.

• Mandatory Spending: Programs the government has already committed to paying.

Congressional Actions

• Pork Barrel Legislation: Congressmen negotiate for legislation that helps their specific district but not the whole country.

• Logrolling: Congressmen agree to support each other's bills.

• Ideological Divisions: People often vote along party lines, making it harder for legislation to pass due to partisan differences.

  • Congress has become increasingly partisan, which has caused less legislation to be passed successfully.

• Gerrymandering: Redistricting strategically to ensure one party gets more representation, leading to a majority having representation in Congress.

• Redistricting: Redrawing district lines for representation.

• Reapportionment: The delegation of representatives to different districts based on population, determining which states get more representation.

• Divided Government: When Congress is controlled by a different party than the White House, leading to a gridlock where no legislation is passed because the two parties cannot agree.

• Congressional Refusal to Confirm Appointments: Congressional refusal to confirm appointments of “lame duck” presidents of the opposite party can cause governmental positions to be vacant.

  • When the next President has been chosen and the current president’s term is almost up, they usually try to appoint people to governmental positions so their political ideologies continue, even though they are technically out of office.

  • If Congress has a majority of the opposite party, then they may not want to confirm anyone, which will cause vacant spots in the government.

Congressional Models for Voting

• Trustee Model: Representatives vote based on what they think is right, even if it differs from what their constituents want.

• Delegate Model: Representatives vote based on what their constituents want, even when other representatives disagree.

Important Court Decisions

• Baker v. Carr: The Supreme Court ruled that they could make decisions on the fairness of districts under the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment to make sure everyone’s vote had the same weight because Tennessee residents were upset that the government had not redistricted in quite some time so the districts didn’t reflect the current population, causing residents in rural areas’ votes to count more than people in urban areas.

• Shaw v. Reno: The Supreme Court ruled that race cannot be the predominant factor in redistricting because that violates the 14th amendment because North Carolina residents were mad about a majority-minority district.

Article Two of the Constitution - The Executive Branch

Informal Powers of the President

• Chief Political / Party Leader: The President can endorse people in their party, acting as a spokesperson.

• Head of State: Represents the nation by receiving ambassadors and performing ceremonial roles.

• Chief Legislator: Proposes legislation and can veto bills.

• Chief Economic Planner: Proposes the budget and has to approve it.

• Bully Pulpit:

  • The internet allows the President to utilize the bully pulpit more efficiently to communicate with the American people quicker and more directly. It is also easier to mobilize and grassroots campaigns. However, it is harder for the President to control the news.

  • The President can use the bully pulpit to get support for their agenda which will make it easier for the President to get legislation passed that they support through.

• The government gives tasks to different departments. They use civil servants in more than 200 independent agencies to carry out laws, do administrative work, and issue regulations on the public.

Formal Powers of the President

• Powers explicitly given to the President in the Constitution:

  • Chief Executive: Ensures laws are obeyed, issues executive orders, and employs people to carry out laws.

  • Chief Diplomat: Negotiates with foreign nations and makes treaties.

  • Commander in Chief: Can make war and use nuclear weapons.

Structures of the Executive Branch

• Cabinet: Advisors aiding the President on various topics.

  • Includes Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland, Housing and Urban Development, and the Vice President.

• Ambassadors: Diplomats representing the U.S. in other countries, negotiating for the President.

• White House Staff: Assistants counseling the President, led by the Chief of Staff.

Federalist No. 70

• Hamilton advocates for a unitary executive, believing one energetic person can make quick decisions and be held accountable.

• He supports paying the President to keep them motivated and giving them enough power to prevent tyranny.

• Having the president as one person allows the people to hold that one person accountable, preventing blame from being passed around.

Bureaucracy Interactions

• Writing and enforcing regulations: issuing regulations to enforce laws and executive orders.

• Issuing fines: punishing the public for not obeying the law.

• Testifying before Congress: giving expert insight on specific topics.

• Iron triangles: relationships between Congress, the federal bureaucracy, and interest groups during policy creation.

Civil Service

• Hiring government workers based on competition, tests, and merit.

• Merit: Jobs based on achievements and ability rather than partisan loyalty.

• Pendleton Act: Attempted to stop patronage and made it illegal to hire or fire someone for political reasons.

Bureaucratic Agencies

• Congress gives the federal bureaucracy administrative discretion in implementing its laws, allowing them to determine how to implement the law and come up with regulations and punishments for not obeying the law without approval giving them : Discretionary and rule-making authority to implement policy.

• Independent Executive Agency: Established by Congress with separate status outside of the executive branch to serve a specific purpose.

  • Example: Social Security Administration, CIA, NASA, EPA

• Independent Regulatory Commission: Established to regulate a specific economic activity, working independently of the executive branch and Congress.

  • Federal Reserve Board, Federal Communications Commission

• Government Corporation: Government-owned businesses providing a service that cannot be trusted to the private sector.

  • US Postal Service, Amtrak

Congressional Oversight

• Methods used by Congress to ensure legislation is implemented as intended:

  • Committee hearings: Ensuring departments are running well and nothing suspicious is occurring.

  • Power of the purse: Allocating money to ensure laws have the funding needed or cutting funding if laws are not implemented correctly.

  • Senate not confirming presidential appointments if the President is of the opposite party.

Presidential Oversight

• The President utilizes tools to make sure the bureaucracy is doing its job by:

  • Appointing heads of departments.

  • Controlling their budget.

  • Issuing executive orders to push an agency to enforce rules a certain way.
    *

Court Opinions

• Majority Opinion: What the majority of judges believe; this is the enforced ruling.

• Dissenting Opinion: The opinion of judges that completely disagrees with the majority opinion.

• Concurring Opinion: The opinion of judges that agree with the majority’s ruling but for a different reason.

• Writ of Certiorari: A writ that demands a lower court to send the files over to review a case.

• Rule of Four: At least 4 Supreme Court judges have to want to hear a case for it to be heard by the Supreme Court.

Court System

Unit 3 Bill of Rights

• The Bill of Rights includes the first 10 amendments of the constitution that protect individual liberties and rights of the people of the United States that the government cannot take away from its citizens.

• The government's job and purpose is to protect these rights since they are “god-given”.

• Civil Liberties - the limitations that are put on the government; actions the government can’t take as they may interfere with your personal freedom.

  • Ex. 1st amendment

• Civil Rghts - guarantees of equal citizenship and protects citizens from discrimination by majorities.

  • Ex. the right to vote

First Amendment - Freedom of Religion

• The First Amendment prevents the federal government from supporting an established religion and protects citizens’ free exercise of religion.

• This amendment is split into two parts: the establishment clause and the free exercise clause.

• The establishment clause prevents the US from using religion as a guiding point for laws to be made and makes sure that they don’t endorse any specific religion.

• The free exercise clause does not allow anyone to be prevented from being part of a certain religion. It does not mean that any religious practice is okay. There are limits to what certain parts of a religion that could be practiced. An example could be a sacrifice. The police can arrest you for holding sacrifices.

• An example of a SCOTUS case would be Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972). In this case, the state of
  Wisconsin fined Amish families that refused to send their children to school after the eighth grade. Yoder argued that it went against the free exercise clause of the First Amendment because higher education went against their religious beliefs. The court ruled in favor of the Amish families, saying their First Amendment right outweighed the state’s want to push their attendance.

First Amendment - Freedom of Speech

• Part of the First Amendment allows for people to speak as they please. However, this right does have restrictions. It was made initially to allow constituents to freely express their grievances with the government. However, this does not mean you are allowed to speak freely to anyone else. There are limits such as obscenity, clear and present danger, plus time place and manner restrictions.

• A very important SCOTUS case involving this issue was Schenck v. United States. Schenck was an anti-war activist who sent out 15,000 flies telling men to resist the draft for the first world war. He was arrested under the Espionage Act, which prohibited interference with military operations. Schenck argued that it went against his First Amendment right, eventually leading this case to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court ended up voting against Schneck, saying his freedom of speech did not apply because of time, place, and manner restrictions.

• Another important Supreme Court case was Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District. In this case, Iowa students were trying to wear black armbands in order to protest the Vietnam war. The court ruled in favour of Tinker because it was a form of symbolic speech which does not go against the First Amendment because the school system is part of the government so they were essentially protesting the government, something that is completely allowed.

First Amendment - Freedom of the Press

• This part of the First Amendment prevents Congress from making any laws allowing censorship of the press, essentially trying to prevent them from publishing information. Just like freedom of speech, there are limitations to freedom of the press such as libel, which is lying about what someone or something did that leads to a damaged reputation.

• An important case that deals with this idea is New York Times v. United States. The United States wanted to restrain the New York Times from publishing the history of the Pentagon Papers, documents that included classified information on Vietnam. The case made its way all the way up to the Supreme Court, where they ruled in favor of the New York Times, saying that publication did not pose an immediate threat to the country.

Second Amendment - Right to Bear Arms

• The Second Amendment allows the people the individual right to have firearms. This is one of the most argued rights because of the limitations that are trying to be placed on this subject.

Selective Incorporation

• The 14 amendment of the constitution talks about how the national government cannot take away your rights but it doesn’t mention anything about this same thing applying to the state governments, meaning that the Bill of Rights didn’t apply to the state governments. Over time, the Supreme Court has made rulings on certain court cases to make sure that the Bill of Rights applies to the state governments as well. However, not every part of the Bill of Rights has been applied to the states through selective incorporation. Major court cases involving selective incorporation include Tinker v. Des Moines, where the Supreme Court ruled symbolic speech is valid in schools and cannot be punished as it applies to all levels of government. Another good example would be the case of Roe v. Wade. In this case, the Supreme Court ruled that a woman’s ability to get an abortion in the first trimester could not be prohibited because it falls under the right to privacy which could not be limited by states. This made it unconstitutional for states to make abortions illegal.

Due Process in the Right to Privacy

• The Supreme Court has interpreted that the due process clause of the 14th amendment prevents state governments from taking away people's rights to privacy. The right to privacy is not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution but over time, the Supreme Court has begun to include it in its rulings such as in Roe v. Wade. There are limitations to this idea especially when it comes to public safety.

Social Movements and Equal Protection

• During the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement was in full swing, pushing for social justice for black and other minorities. The social movement led to a change in policies that our government makes. For example, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prevented discrimination based off of sex, gender, race and other factors.

Government Responses to Social Movements

• The pressure from social movements causes the government to make changes legislatively. An example being the Civil Rights Act of 1964, an act preventing the discrimination of a person based off of sex, gender, race, and other factors. The Supreme Court in cases such as Brown v. Board of Education invalidated previous actions the government had used in order to discriminate against certain groups of people. This case made it so that segregation could be looked at as unconstitutional because it goes against the equal protection clause of the constitution.

Balancing Minority and Majority Rights

• Depending on the ideological standpoint of the Supreme Court, the cases that they deal with may have major effects on minorities and majorities. An example would be with the separate but equal doctrine. In the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court ruled that separate facilities for coloured people didn’t go against the 14th amendment because it was separate but still equal. That idea was overruled with Brown v. Board of Education, as the Supreme Court had ruled just because the facilities are separate doesn't mean that they are actually equal, essentially violating the 14th amendment.

Affirmative Action

• Starting in the 1960sm the government began using affirmative action to help minorities have equal opportunities in the United States. Since then, the Supreme Court has been making rulings on affirmative action to determine whether or not it is constitutional.

• The Court has had mixed feelings about idea based on the fact that it is constitutional because the constitution only mentions things about how race classifications influences cannot harm a minority but is unconstitutional because it’s helping to promote the benefits of specific groups to get ahead.

Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs

• Ideology- Beliefs that shape political opinion and policies

• Political Socialization- The process where people learn and develop their political values and opinions

• Agents of Socialization - Things that influence the development of one’s political views (ie. family, what you learn in class, etc.)

• Political Culture - A nation’s core beliefs on how their economic, political, and social life should be carried out

• Liberalism - A political ideology where people believe in less government control over political and social issues, but more government control over economics.

• Conservatism - A political ideology where people believe the government should have more control over political and social issues, but less control over economics (laissez-faire)

• Libertarianism - A political ideology where people believe the government should have little to no government control on political/social issues and the economy

• Totalitarianism - A political ideology where people believe the government should have as much control as possible on political/social issues and the economy.

• Socialism - A political ideology where people believe that the government should control the means of production within the US and a better equal distribution of wealth

• Laissez-Faire/Capitalism - The belief that the government should allow free market to dictate pricing, production, and demand

• Political Efficacy- The belief that your voice in government matters (voting, reaching out to senators, etc.)

• Tracking Polls - Polls monitoring the changes in public opinion overtime

• Random Sampling- When anyone has the chance to be selected to participate in a poll

• Quota Sampling - When pollsters target a specific population of people to participate in a poll

• Public Opinion Poll - Surveys put out by the government to get an idea of what the people want to see from the government

• Push Polls - Polls typically asking questions in a negative way that are made to change the public opinion about candidates

4.1: American Attitudes About Government and Politics

• People have different core values and different views towards how they feel the government should act. This makes up the different ideologies within American politics. America itself has core values and beliefs, which is known as a political culture. There are 5 elements of a country’s political culture:

  • Equality (egalitarianism) - equal vote, equal chance to participate

  • Liberty - Freedom (doesn’t including the harming of others or breaking of laws)

  • Democracy - Government accountable to the people (popular sovereignty)

  • Individual Responsibility - Responsible for your own actions and well-being

  • Civic Duty- Being a part of the community

• As those are the core values of America’s political culture, there are two other beliefs that often fall under America's political culture as well:

  • Laissez-Faire/Capitalism and factors of production largely privately-held.

4.2: Political Socialization

• As people grow older, they will develop their own political views. This happens through political socialization which is basically when people learn more about politics and start to form their opinions on how they feel the government should be run. Things people are surrounded with can influence how people develop their political views. These are called agents of socialization. Some examples are:

  • If a child grows up in a home where they are only exposed to conservative beliefs, they are more likely to grow up and be conservative

  • If a person surrounds themselves with friends who have liberal beliefs, they are more likely to hold liberal beliefs

  • If a child grows up in a town that preaches conservatism, they are more likely to become a conservative as they grow older

• When learning about politics in school, if a student finds that they disagree with conservatives views, they are more likely to become a liberal

4.3: Changes in Ideology

• There are many parts of one’s identity that may also depict their ideology. For example, women tend to be more liberal while men tend to be conservative. Racial minorities are more likely to be liberal while caucasions are more likely to be conservative. You can say that these are stereotypes of what a liberal or conservative may look like, however, with data from polls and surveys, you can see who is more likely to be which ideology based on their personal identity.

• Remember though, these are not standards you have to fit. Women can be conservative, white people can be liberal, etc. Ideologies can even change overtime with these stereotypes. For example, people ages 18-30 are more likely to be liberals while people older than 65 are more likely to be conservative. In fact, there is something called the mitigating factor where as you get older, you may find yourself becoming more conservative (potentially becoming a moderate).

4.4: Influence of Political Events on Ideology

• Events within a country tend to put mistrust between the government and the people within it. Examples include the Great Depression, the Watergate Scandal, Vietnam War, and Kent-State made the people believe less in the government which then lowers the political efficacy within the country. People will start to vote less and turn away from politics. Certain events can also bring up the political efficacy within a country like Reagan’s presidency. People had more trust in Reagan when he was in office so everyone started to get more involved in politics. Even events like 9/11 can raise the amount of political efficacy. It all depends on how the government handles the situation at hand.

4.5: Measuring Public Opinion

• Public opinion polls are put out so that the government can get a general idea of what the people want the government to do and/or what general direction they want the government to go in. Sometimes they use quota sampling to target how a certain population of people feels about politics, such as making sure 60% of the people answering a poll are women. They will also use random sampling to give everyone an equal chance of participating in a poll. These polls play a vital part in the political process of America as they help the government to figure out what their priorities are in terms of what the people want to see from them.

4.6: Evaluating Public Opinion Data

• The government looks over public opinion polls and then makes changes to what they feel they can do. The government can also be seen putting out tracking polls to see how the views are changing. For example, a school may make the students answer a poll about their school every three months to see if the students’ opinions of their school are changing over the course of the year. The government will do this to either determine who may be winning an election, how popular a president is, or what people think about the general direction of the country. When seeing the poll results, push polls may be put out to sway the opinions of the people.

4.7: Ideologies of Political Parties

• Different ideologies are associated with different political parties. Views of conservatism are considered the right and views of liberalism are considered the left when it comes to the political spectrum. The right tends to be aligned with the Republican party while the left is associated with the Democratic party. This is because of the different views and values these parties have.

• For example, people on the left tend to be “pro-choice,” a view often seen by Democrats. However, Republicans tend to be “pro-life,” like people on the right. People on the left may not want to vote for someone who is a republican because being “pro-choice” is an important value to them. Some people vote based on the candidate’s alignment to their views regardless of political party affiliation, but most people tend to stay within their political party to ensure that the candidate will appoint others that have the same views as them, and push for policy that they completely agree with.

4.8: Ideology and Policy Making

• Liberals are typically more focused on domestic policy when it comes to policy making. They want to focus on and fix the problems within our own country such as education, healthcare, and financial aid. Conservatives are typically more focused on foreign policy. They want to focus on the country’s relationships with other countries. This would include focusing on international trade, keeping the peace between nations, or fixing broken bonds with other countries.

4.9: Ideology and Economic Policy Making

• When it comes to economic policy, conservatives tend to believe in laissez-faire economics and are against the government heavily regulating the economy. When making economics policies they will most likely advocate for deregulation of the economy, less taxes, and be more in favor of private and big businesses. Liberals typically believe in having more regulations on the economy. They don’t want big businesses to have more power within the economy and they would advocate for more taxes placed on the economy, specifically on bigger businesses.

4.10: Ideology and Social Policy

• For social policy, conservatives typically do not agree with social change and want to maintain a “status quo.” For example, they do not typically agree with same-sex marriage so they may advocate against it. They would try to keep the social aspect of the society “traditional.” On the other hand, liberals believe in addressing social issues such as poverty/homelessness and using government intervention to enhance the rights of the people. They do advocate for social change so they wouldn’t advocate against things like same-sex marriage or gender equality.

Unit 5 Voting Rights and Models of Voting Behavior

• In the beginning of American history, only land-owning white males were allowed to vote. Through amendments to the Constitution and legislation, suffrage has been extended to all citizens of the United States of America. Amendments and legislation that has extended suffrage include:

  • 15th Amendment: Gave suffrage to African American men.

  • 17th Amendment: Gave the people the right to directly elect Senators instead of Senators being elected by the state legislature.

  • 19th Amendment: Gave women suffrage.

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