Exam Notes on South Asian History (1947-Present)

Pakistan, 1947-1953

Creation of New Nation States in South Asia

  • Large parts of South Asia were directly colonized by the British, starting from 1757 till 1857.
  • After the revolt of 1857, the rule of the East India Company (or Company Raj) came to an end, and its possessions were transferred to the British Crown (Queen Victoria).
  • Princely States: There was also an Indian ruler in many regions of South Asia, who were supporters of British rule.
  • After negotiations following the end of World War II, the British left, and two new nation-states were formed and formally independent: India and Pakistan.
  • India became independent on 15 August 1947, and Pakistan on 14 August 1947.
  • Millions crossed the new borders and resettled (forcefully) due to fears for their safety in the new nation; Muslim exodus from India and Hindu exodus from Pakistan.
  • Large scale sexual violence against women occurred during this period.

Challenges for Pakistan

  • Troubled relations with India and the Kashmir dispute:
    • War in 1948.
    • Ceasefire was established.
    • Bilateral talks and diplomatic efforts of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) could not resolve the Kashmir dispute.
  • Crisis of leadership at the top:
    • Death of Jinnah in 1948.
    • Assassination of Liaqat Ali Khan in 1951.
  • The Muslim League was organizationally weak and internally divided; could not provide leadership as a political party.
  • Political polarization and conflict intensified as leaders from East Pakistan demanded provincial autonomy.
  • The province of Punjab in Pakistan witnessed riots against Ahmadi Muslims.

Pakistan: 1947-1951

  • The First Constituent Assembly was established by dividing the Constituent Assembly of British India.
  • Governor General: Office of Pakistan's head of state established by the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah became the first Governor General until his death in September 1948.
  • Liaquat Ali Khan (1895-1951) became the first Prime Minister of Pakistan and was assassinated in 1951.
  • Karachi was the first capital of Pakistan.
  • Reorientation for provinces that were ruled from Delhi were now in Pakistan. (Dhaka: Provincial government set up for East Pakistan; earlier ruled from Calcutta).

Religion and State

  • It was believed that Islam should have importance, but there was little agreement on the exact nature of its relationship to the state or the nature of political institutions.
  • Different views on the implementation of Islam:
    • Orthodox and strong implementation.
    • Blend with democratic ideals.
    • Religion should remain flexible.
  • Constitution-making was delayed due to a lack of proper leadership.

Objectives Resolution

  • Liaquat Ali Khan established the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, a formal step towards the Constitution.
  • Deep divisions existed regarding this resolution, particularly between:
    • Leaders of the Islamic parties, who wanted a stronger assertion that Pakistan was an Islamic state.
    • The East and West wings of the country.
  • The Prime Minister was assassinated in October 1951, and many groups and individuals were suspected.

Dismissal of PM Nazimuddin in 1953

  • Khwaja Nazimuddin became the second Governor-General (Sep. 1948-Oct. 1951) after the death of Jinnah and became the PM after Khan's death (1951-1953).
    • Khwaja Nazimuddin was from East Pakistan.
  • Malik Ghulam Muhammad served as the Third Governor-General (1951-1955).
  • Lahore riots of 1953: Riots against the Ahmadi (Muslim sect) community in Lahore, Punjab.
    • The Pakistan Army declared 3 months of martial law in March 1953.
  • Malik Ghulam Muhammad dismissed the Nazimuddin government in April 1953 using reserve powers awarded to him by the Government of India Act 1935.

Ahmadis: Ahmadiyya Movement

  • Ahmadis are followers of the Ahmadiyya movement in Punjab, British India.
  • Mirza Ghulam Ahmed (1835-1908):
    • Born in Qadian and died in Lahore.
    • Founder of the Ahmadiyya movement and an Indian religious leader who claimed to be a messiah according to Islam's latter-day prophecies.
  • Ahmadis face discrimination in Pakistan.
  • Disturbances began when Muslim clerics demanded the removal of Ahmadis from top government offices and the declaration of Ahmadis as non-Muslims.

Munir Report

  • The government set up a commission in 1953, under the chairmanship of Justice Munir of the Punjab Supreme Court, to enquire into the causes of the anti-Ahmadiyya riots.
  • The Munir Report attempted to answer two fundamental questions:
    • What is the nature of the Islamic State?
    • Who is a Muslim?
  • The report condemned politicians for a lack of timely action to prevent violence and pressed religious leaders to define an “Islamic state.”
  • Conclusion: Such a state was impossible in the modern world.

Coming of Martial Rule in Pakistan

  • The first decade and the decline of democracy.

Challenges to Pakistan (Reasons for Dismissal)

  • Riots against Ahmadis.
  • Economic distress.
  • Disturbances in East Pakistan.

Bengali Language Movement

  • Economic stagnation: slowing economy.
  • Disturbances in East Pakistan. In 1948, Urdu was declared the sole national language of Pakistan.
  • Advocates of the Bengali language wanted Bengali also to be recognized as an official language along with Urdu.
  • The government outlawed public meetings and rallies to contain rising tensions.
  • February 1952: Students protested, defied the law, and organized a protest. Police killed student demonstrators at the University of Dhaka.

Constitutional Coup, 1954

  • Dismissal of PM Nazimuddin by Governor-General Ghulam Muhammad.
  • New PM: Muhammad Ali Bogra from April 1953-August 1955.
  • Aware that the Constituent Assembly was attempting to strip him of his extraordinary powers and establish checks and balances by finalizing the draft constitution for the country, Ghulam Muhammad dissolved the Constituent Assembly on October 24, 1954, and removed PM Muhammad Ali Bogra; reappointed Bogra and a new cabinet.
  • The Sindh High Court ruled the decision unlawful, but the ruling was overturned by the Federal Court of Pakistan.
  • This ruling and coup of 1954 mark the beginning of viceregal politics in Pakistan.
  • Viceregal politics: Governor-Generals, bureaucracy, and the military have more influence on policy than elected officials.

Constitution of 1956

  • Iskandar Mirza (1899-1969): Fourth Governor-General from August 1955 when Ghulam Muhammad stepped down.
  • Iskander Mirza was known for dealing with the Bengali language movement with an iron fist before he became the Governor-General.
  • PM Muhammad Ali Bogra was forced to resign by Governor-General Mirza in August 1955.
  • Chaudhary Muhammad Ali (August 1955-September 1956) became the PM.
  • The Constitution of Pakistan was promulgated on 23 March 1956, where Pakistan was declared an Islamic Republic with a parliamentary system of government, a directly elected national assembly, and a guarantee of fundamental rights.
  • Iskander Mirza, who was Governor-General, became the President in 1956 when Pakistan became a Republic.

Pakistan, 1956-1957

  • Three main political parties in 1956:
    1. Awami League: Founded in Dacca in 1949 to represent Bengalis.
    2. Muslim League: Survived from before 1947.
    3. Republican Party: Formed in 1955 under the leadership of Iskander Mirza.
  • Unable to sort out differences between President Mirza and PM Chaudhary Muhammad Ali, PM Ali stepped down in September 1956.
  • Huseyn Suhrawardy became the PM in September 1956; problems continued.
  • PM Suhrawardy also resigned in October 1957.

Military Coup of 1958

  • In total, President Mirza dismissed 4 PMs from 1956-1958 due to differences in policy.
  • Unconstitutional interference by President Mirza in civil administrations made the job of PMs difficult and made a mockery of government.
  • October 7, 1958:
    • President Mirza abrogated the 1956 Constitution.
    • Declared martial law on the grounds that the country's politicians could not maintain law and order.
    • Appointed army chief General Ayub Khan as "Chief Martial Law Administrator."
  • October 27, 1958:
    • Ayub Khan forced Mirza's resignation.
    • Declared himself President, bringing martial law to the country.
  • This was the beginning of military rule in Pakistan.

Military Rule: Ayub Khan (1958-69)

  • October 27, 1958: Ayub Khan forced President Mirza's resignation and declared himself President, bringing martial law to the country, marking the beginning of military rule in Pakistan.
  • He maintained control over the bureaucracy and spy agencies.
  • A new Constitution was introduced in 1962:
    • Secular in spirit but retained the dictatorship of Ayub Khan and gave him extraordinary powers.
    • Implemented reforms in family laws.
  • His foreign policy was pro-US.

Rise of Bengali Language Movement

  • West Pakistan was geographically bigger, but East Pakistan was more densely populated.
  • Institutions of State were dominated by two regional groups:
    1. Immigrants from North India (Mohajirs): Exerted a strong influence in politics and social life.
    2. Muslims from Punjab: Overrepresented in armed forces and controlled much of the irrigated land.
  • There was a perception in West Pakistan that Bengali Muslims were different but also socially inferior to Mohajirs and Punjabi Muslims.

Protests over 'National Language'

  • Bengali language movement: In 1948, Urdu was declared the sole national language of Pakistan.
  • This caused disillusionment among East Pakistani intellectuals, civil servants, politicians, and students; East Pakistanis wanted Bengali also to be recognized as an official language along with Urdu.
  • 'Language Movement': Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani, a member of the Muslim League, broke away and formed a new party called Awami Muslim League in 1949.
  • The government outlawed public meetings and rallies in response to the call for a language movement.
  • February 1952: Students protested, defied the law, and organized a protest. Police killed student demonstrators at the University of Dhaka.
  • Awami Muslim League was renamed Awami League in 1955.
  • In 1956, the Pakistan Constituent Assembly agreed to accept both Urdu and Bengali as state languages.

21 Point Program of United Front (Coalition)

  • A coalition of Awami League and smaller Bengal-based parties won provincial elections in 1954 and defeated the Muslim League.
    1. To make Bengali one of the state languages of Pakistan.
    2. To abolish without compensation all rent-receiving interest in land and to distribute the surplus lands among the landless cultivators, bring down the rent to a fair level, and abolish the certificate procedure for realizing rent.
    3. To nationalize jute trade, to make arrangements for giving to jute-growers fair prices for jute, and to investigate the jute-bungling during the Muslim League regime, to punish those responsible for the bungling, and to forfeit all their properties earned thereby.
    4. To introduce cooperative farming and to improve the conditions of cottage industries and manual works.
    5. To start salt industries, both cottage and big, in order to make East Pakistan self-sufficient in the supply of salt.
    6. To immediately rehabilitate all refugees, particularly those who are artisans and technicians.
    7. To improve the irrigation system and save the country from flood and famine.
    8. To industrialize East Pakistan and to guarantee the economic and social rights of industrial labor, according to the I.L.O. [International Labour Organization] conventions.
    9. To introduce free and compulsory primary education and to arrange for a just pay and allowance for the teachers.
    10. To reorient the entire secondary system by abolishing the discrimination between Government and private schools, and to introduce only the mother tongue as the medium of instructions.
    11. To do away with all the reactionary black laws of Dacca and Rajshahi Universities and to make them autonomous institutions.
    12. To make an all-out curtailment of the Administration and to rationalize the pay scale of high and low-paid Government servants; United Front Ministers shall not accept more than Rs. 1,000 as their monthly salary.
    13. To eradicate corruption, nepotism, and bribery, and with this end in view, to take stock of the properties of all Government officers and businessmen from the year 1940 onward and forfeit all unexplained properties.
    14. To release all security prisoners who are detained in jail under various public safety acts and ordinances and to guarantee freedom of the Press, speech, and associations.
    15. To separate the executive from the judiciary.
    16. To convert Burdwan House for the present into a students' residence and afterwards to a research institute of Bengali language and literature.
    17. To erect a martyrs' monument to commemorate the sacred memory of those who gave their lives for the Bengali language and literature.
    18. To declare February 21 as "Shahid Day" and to observe it as a public holiday.
    19. In accordance with the historic Lahore Resolution, to secure full and complete autonomy and bring all subjects under the jurisdiction of East Pakistan, leaving only defense, foreign affairs, and currency under the jurisdiction of the center. Even in the matter of defense, arrangement shall be such as to have the headquarters of Army in West Pakistan and the headquarters of Navy in East Pakistan and to establish ordnance factories in East Pakistan, with a view to making East Pakistan self-sufficient in the matter of defense and also to convert the present Ansars into full-fledged militia.
    20. United Front Cabinet shall on no account extend the life of the Legislature, and the Ministry shall six months before the general election arrange for a free and fair election through the agency of an Election Commission.
    21. All casual vacancies in the Legislature shall be filled up through by-elections within three months of the date of the vacancies, and if the United Front nominees are defeated in three successive by-elections, the Ministry shall voluntarily resign from office.

Six-Point Program

  • Dictatorship hardened Bengalis' views towards East Pakistan.
  • Headquarters of the army, air force, and navy were all in West Pakistan.
  • The Indo-Pak War of 1965 brought economic crisis and feelings of insecurity (there was no army in East Pakistan to ward off an Indian invasion).
  • Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, an Awami League leader, produced the Six-Point Program:
    • Confederation of two Separate Units; East Pakistan would control taxation, financial management, foreign trade, and trade agreements with foreign countries; even have their own currency.
  • He was arrested in the Agartala Conspiracy Case (1968): Conspiracy to separate East Pakistan from Pakistan with the help of the Indian government.
  • Mass agitations arose in support of the accused.

Anti-Ayub Protests

  • In 1967, the Pakistan People's Party was formed by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in opposition to Ayub Khan's dictatorship.
  • November 1968 onwards: Nationwide protests were led by left-wing student movements.
  • Labor unions called for strikes, joined by small farmers and peasants; Bengali language protests continued.
  • 25 March 1969: Ayub Khan resigned from office.
  • General Yahya Khan declared martial law in the country.
  • The 1962 Constitution was abrogated, and parliament was dissolved; he announced elections (to be held in December 1970).

1970 Elections in Pakistan

  • The elections were a contest between the west-based Pakistan People's Party and the east-based Awami League.
  • The Awami League won all seats from East Pakistan; won an absolute majority in the National Assembly (162 out of 300; 81 went to PPP).
  • The National Assembly was initially not inaugurated, as President Yahya Khan and the PPP chairman Zulfikar Ali Bhutto did not want a party from East Pakistan in the federal government.
  • A political deadlock ensued; protests intensified in East Pakistan, and the situation became restless.

Violence against Bengalis

  • 25 March 1971: Yahya Khan launched Operation Searchlight, a military operation, to suppress Bengali nationalists.
  • Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested again for unleashing civil disobedience.
  • Mass violence against Bengalis in East Pakistan was perpetrated by the Pakistani military.
  • Mass exodus of Bengali refugees to India; Awami League leadership fled to India and formed a government in exile.
  • The Pakistan military targeted East Bengali regiments of the West Pakistani army; its survivors formed the 'Mukhti Bahini.'
  • 17 April 1971: An independent state of Bangladesh was proclaimed in a radio broadcast.

Civil War & India-Pakistan War of 1971

  • A civil war erupted in East Pakistan, in which India got actively involved; fighters received support and training from India, and most of their camps were across the border.
  • India began its military operations inside East Pakistan from November onwards.
  • India officially joined the war on 3 December 1971; the PM of India was Indira Gandhi.
  • 16 December 1971: Pakistan surrenders, and an independent state of Bangladesh came into being.
  • Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was released from prison and returned to Bangladesh.
  • The four guiding principles of the new state were Nationalism, Socialism, Democracy, and Secularism.
  • Zulfikar Ali Bhutto first becomes President of Pakistan and later the Prime Minister.

Odd Alliance: Pakistan and United States

  • The US wanted Pakistan as an ally against the Soviet Union during the Cold War.
  • Ghulam Muhammad, Muhammad Ali Bogra, and Ayub Khan were anti-communist and strong supporters of the Pakistan-US alliance.
  • Pakistani dependence on the US and a parallel process of estrangement from India developed.
  • The US imposed its first arms embargo on Pakistan after the 1965 India-Pakistan war; it was eased from 1967-1971.
  • Another embargo was imposed after the 1971 Bangladesh war; it was gradually eased after 1975, but ties remained strained.
  • The US stopped all economic and military assistance in April 1979 when it suspected Pakistan of building a nuclear weapons program.

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto

  • 16 December 1971: Pakistan surrenders, and an independent state of Bangladesh came into being.
  • Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1928-1979) becomes President of Pakistan.
  • Bhutto's Presidential term lasted from December 1971 to August 1973.
  • Bhutto called all political parties to discuss revisions to the first Constitution of 1956.
  • The 1973 Constitution was ratified on 19 April 1973 and implemented on 14 August 1973.
  • Bhutto became Prime Minister of Pakistan through a vote of confidence with his term lasting from August 1973 to July 1977.

New Constitution and Economic Policy

  • 1973: The new Constitution of Pakistan established a bicameral parliament, with the National Assembly as the lower house and the Senate as the upper house.
  • It provided for an independent judiciary, guaranteed fundamental rights, and granted more autonomy to the provinces.
  • No law would conflict with the teachings and principles of Islam; it provided a definition of who is a Muslim and considered Ahmadis non-Muslims.
  • Nationalization of industry to support socialist economic policies: iron and steel, basic metal, heavy engineering, heavy electrical, motor vehicles, tractor plants, heavy and basic chemicals, cement, petrochemicals, and gas and oil refineries were nationalized.
  • Banks and schools were also nationalized.

1977 Elections and Martial Law

  • The elections were scheduled to be held in late 1977 but were held in March 1977.
  • Opposition parties got together and formed an alliance called the PNA (Pakistan National Alliance).
  • There was a landslide victory for PPP (155 out of 200 seats, PNA won only 37), but increasing protests, especially led by students and small businesses who were dissatisfied with PPP's performance, ensued.
  • PNA accused PPP of rigging elections and refused to accept the result.
  • Bhutto refused fresh elections, leading to mass demonstrations and unrest throughout the country.
  • April 1977: Martial law was imposed in the cities of Karachi, Lahore, and Hyderabad.
  • Bhutto held talks with PNA for a new government, but there was a military coup before it could be formed.

Military Coup and Third Military Rule

  • Bhutto was given the death sentence for conspiring to kill an opposition leader and executed on 4 April 1979.
  • 5 July 1977: Martial law was declared in the country by Army Chief Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq.
  • 5 July 1977-December 30 1985: Martial law; Zia continued to exercise influence even after stepping down as Chief of Army.
  • 'Islamization:' enabled him to cultivate Islamic groups and parties to legitimize his rule and undercut the opposition, particularly PPP.

Pakistan and the Soviet-Afghan War

  • War between Afghan Mujahideen against the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) and the Soviet army.
  • The foundations of the conflict were laid by the Saur Revolution, a 1978 coup where Afghanistan communists took power and overthrew the regime of Daoud Khan.
  • The government suppressed the opposition and executed thousands of political prisoners, leading to the rise of anti-government armed groups; by April 1979, large parts of the country were in open rebellion.
  • 25 December 1979: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.
  • The United States (Reagan administration) was a supporter of Zia's military regime and Pakistan's conservative-leaning ruling military establishment.
  • The Reagan administration declared Zia's regime as the "front line" ally of the United States in the fight against Communism.

‘Islamization’: Six Aspects of Zia’s Policy

  1. Islamic ‘shariah’ benches were established at the provincial high court level in 1979; One year later, the Federal Shariah Court replaced various benches. Some judges were Islamic scholars.
  2. Five laws were introduced in 1979 requiring the imposition of Islamic punishment for certain acts like adultery. These laws were called the ‘Hudood Ordinances.’
  3. Interest-free banking was gradually introduced, and a compulsory Islamic tax called ‘Zakat’ was imposed on bank savings accounts at the rate of 2.5\% per annum.
  4. Schools and colleges were revised to accommodate orthodox Islamic teachings.
  5. Islamic codes were imposed on social life including censorship of cinema, TV, and other cultural and literary activities.
  6. Foreign policy promoted Islamic groups in Afghanistan and was encouraged by the US.

'Jumma': Chittagong Hill Tracts War

  • Those (Jumma) living in the region of Chittagong Hill Tracts wanted the continuation of the Hill Tracts Regulation of 1900, that had given them autonomy.
  • Mujibur Rahman refused.
  • They formed a political party called the United People's Party; an armed wing emerged in the 1980s during military rule.
  • Jumma refugees have fled to India to escape attacks by the Bangladesh army.

Nehru's Philosophy: Modernization of India

  1. National Unity: Centralized state.
  2. Parliamentary Democracy.
  3. Industrialization.
  4. Socialism.
  5. Scientific temper.
  6. Secularism.
  7. Non-Alignment.

Castes and Tribes

  • The Government of India Act of 1935 termed lower castes or those known as Dalits as Scheduled Castes.
    • "such castes, parts of groups within castes, which appear to His Majesty in Council to correspond to the classes of persons formerly known as the 'Depressed Classes', as His Majesty in Council may prefer"
  • The Indian Constitution adopted the terms 'Scheduled Castes' (to refer to lower castes) and 'Scheduled Tribes' (to refer to tribal groups of India who were poor and not well-educated).
  • It provided affirmative action for these groups (SC/STS).

Hindu Code Bill

  • A series of laws about marriage, inheritance, and property for Hindu women were passed from 1955-1958.
  • These included:
    • Hindu Marriage Act (1955).
    • Hindu Succession Act (1956).
    • Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act (1956).
    • Hindu Adoptions and Maintenance Act (1956).
  • These bills were drafted by B.R. Ambedkar.

Controversies after Independence

  • Two major Controversies:
    1. Article 25, which made freedom of religion an inalienable right. While the freedom to practice religion was accepted, there was serious objection to the right to propagate religion.
    2. The choice of Hindi as the national language in Article 343 (1): “The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in the Devanagari script."

States Reorganization Act, 1956

  • India organized states along linguistic lines instead of ethnic and religious lines in 1956 after recommendations of SRC (States Reorganization Commission) formed in 1953.
  • Created states and union territories.

National Language Controversy

  • For fifteen years after the start of the Constitution, English could be used alongside Hindi in official and government documents and this was to cease on 26 January 1965.
  • This created tension in non-Hindi speaking areas of the country:
    • Kerala, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka, Puducherry, and Andhra Pradesh.
  • The enactment of the Official Indian Languages Act of 1963 stipulated that English may continue to be used.
  • Under the next PM, Lal Bahadur Shastri, widespread agitation, riots, self-immolations, and suicides occurred in the southern state of Tamil Nadu.

Anti-Hindi Agitation in South India

  • Efforts by the Indian government to make Hindi the sole official language after 1965 were not acceptable to many non-Hindi Indian states, who wanted the continued use of English.
  • Riots took place in the southern state of Tamil Nadu and continued for two months from January 1965 onwards and were marked by violence, arson, looting, and police firing.
  • The party that led the opposition was the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK).
  • The Congress party of Shastri and Nehru was defeated in the 1967 assembly election, and it could never capture power again.

Opium Wars and Tea Trade

  • Tea had spread to Europe by Dutch, Portuguese, and English traders.
  • By 1800, trade in Chinese tea was lucrative for British merchants.
  • The Chinese only traded in silver, so the East India Company (EIC) started smuggling opium into China, bought with silver.
  • By 1839, silver from opium sales in China paid for the tea trade.
  • Lord Bentinck (Governor-General of India, 1834-1835) formed a Tea Committee to explore the possibility of growing tea in India.
  • By 1848, the EIC sent Robert Fortune, an agent of the Tea Committee, disguised as a Chinese merchant to bring (steal secrets) of tea horticulture and manufacturing.

British Empire: Tea in India

  • Fortune brought to India tea leaf samples, knowledge of manufacturing black and green teas, and 80 Chinese tea specialists who worked on tea gardens in India.
  • Samples were planted in Darjeeling and Assam in eastern India.
  • The tea bush was also planted in south India (Nilgiris) and later in Ceylon.
  • This consumed vast tracts of land for tea plantation, run by indentured servitude, with harsh conditions for workers (like slavery).
  • By 1900, 75 million kgs of tea were supplied to the UK.
  • Chinese tea export fell from 90% to 5%, and India became the world leader in tea manufacture.

From Imperial Product to National Drink

  • Initial tea consumption targeted high society, including British and Indian elites.
  • By the 1880s, tea was opposed by nationalists and those who wished to expose the oppression of plantation laborers.
  • After World War 1, various tea associations launched a sustained campaign to promote tea.
  • By the 1940s, tea posited itself as a national emblem that could unite races and communities.

Art and Empire: Literature and Colonialism

  • Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936):
    • Kim: A story about the journey of Kim with a Tibetan lama.
    • Kim's work with the British Secret Service.
    • Kim and the lama appear opposites: Kim mature and street-smart, while the lama is naïve and childlike.
    • Kim captured by the regiment; attends school at St. Xavier's and meets Colonel Creighton.
    • Mahbub Ali, Lugran, and Babu train him in spying.
    • Kim becomes a spy, and the lama finds his River of Arrow and achieves salvation.
    • "Nine hundred first-class devils, whose God was a Red Bull, on a green field would attend to Kim." (50)

Art and Empire: Cinema

  • Gunga Din:
    • A poem by Rudyard Kipling about a British soldier and Indian water bearer who is shot and killed while saving the soldier's life.
    • "Though I've belted you and flayed you, by the livin' Gawd that made you, You're a better man than I am, Gunga Din."
    • A 1939 adventure film starring Sam Jaffe, Cary Grant, etc.
    • Remade as Sergeants 3 in 1961: The American West replaces India, and Indians are indigenous people.

Music

  • Classical Music:
    1. Hindustani music (North Indian music):
      • Amir Khusrau (1253-1325) invented the sitar and tabla.
      • Traces its decent to Tansen, a composer in the Mughal court.
    2. Carnatic music (South Indian music).
  • Popular Music:
    1. Film (Bollywood).
    2. Individual composers.

Dance and Dance-drama

  • Natyashastra (Science of Dance-drama): Theory of aesthetics dealing with aspects of music, dance, and drama.
  • Theory of Rasa:
    • Art emerges from an internalized experience of 'wholeness,' and artistic expression gives concrete form through symbols, myths, and characters to this experience.
    • Art evokes in the mind of the spectator, reader, or listener a state of internalized wholeness similar to the initial experience of the artist.
    • Life is divided into emotional states like love, compassion, heroism, anger, disgust and hatred, laughter and humor, and wonder and amazement.
    • The final state of artistic experience is Ananda, known as enchantment.

Music as Nationalism

  • B.V. Keskar: Minister for Information and Broadcasting (1952-1962).
  • He promoted classical music on All India Radio (national radio station) and prohibited film songs to improve the 'sound standards' of an independent country.
  • Classical music was considered authentic culture, whereas film songs were influenced by 'western' musical instruments.
  • Listeners demanded film songs and did not like the excessive focus on classical music, so they started listening to Radio Ceylon, a radio station in Sri Lanka, that mostly broadcast film songs.

Key Moderate Figures

  • Dadabhai Naoroji (1825-1917): Elected INC President in 1886, 1893, and 1906.
  • Mahadev Govind Ranade (1842-1901): From Maharashtra in Western India; Founded the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha and later the National Social Conference.
  • Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1916): From Maharashtra; founded the Servants of India Society in 1905 for famine relief, education, and improvement of lower castes.
  • R. C Dutt (1848-1909): Economic Historian, author, and civil servant; interested in the problem of famines and poverty.

Socio-Religious Movements

  • Rise of socio-religious movements like the Araya Samaj sought to change Hinduism.
  • Muslims: A school was established in the town of Deoband that imparted religious instruction, with a schooling pattern based on British schools.
    • They came to be called Deobandis and were associated with Sunni Islam.
  • Assertion of religious identity in literature:
    • Bharatendu Harischandra (1850-1885): The father of Hindi literature and Hindi theater who used devotionalism (bhakti) to define a coherent Hindu religion.
    • Nazir Ahmed Dehlavi (1836-1912): Wrote several novels about women in Urdu, portraying in 'ideal' characteristics and expressing concern about education in Islam.

1890-1900: Communalism

  • Increasing assertion of religion, especially against other religious groups.
  • Cow protection societies: The cow was a powerful symbol of fertility and maternity, considered sacred in Vaishnavism and associated with the worship of Lord Krishna; this was taken up by Arya Samaj.
  • Cattle trade included several Muslims, especially in the food industry.
  • This produced religious conflict between Hindus and Muslims.
  • Emergence of Communalism: Communal riots in 1893 in north India left more than 100 dead.

Partition of Bengal

  • Lord Curzon (1899-1905) served as Viceroy.
  • In 1905, Bengal was divided into two provinces:
    • Eastern regions of Bengal that included the current Indian state of