Notes on Plato's Republic: Introduction and Early Definitions of Justice
Course Information and Logistics
Instructor's Recent Trip: The instructor recently attended the Earth System Governance Meeting in Johannesburg, South Africa, marking his first visit to Africa. This meeting, typically held in September or October, was in August this year. He spent two days in a National Park and had a 27-28 hour travel return.
Course Title: Political Science 02/2004 - Western Political Thought.
Syllabus & Requirements: The instructor noted the possibility of errors on the syllabus and encouraged students to report any peculiar or incorrect information. Course requirements include four short papers and points assigned to recitation participation, which TAs should explain.
Teaching Assistants (TAs):
Stacey Bouley: Holds Monday and Thursday morning recitations; office hours are active after class and before Thursday recitations.
Another TA (unnamed but present): Holds Tuesday morning and Monday afternoon recitations.
Danielle and Alan: Alan teaches remotely from Chicago and handles Wednesday sections.
All students have a recitation led by one of the four TAs. Students are welcome to attend the instructor's or TAs' office hours for questions or assistance.
Academic Calendar: Acknowledged a "weird new academic calendar" affecting weekly schedules.
Course Readings: The first assigned reading is from Plato's Republic. Students were asked about any difficulties in obtaining physical or e-book versions of the text, particularly for the edition looking like the one shown by the instructor.
Reading Plato's Dialogues: The instructor stated that reading Platonic dialogues can be tricky. A major goal of the class is to help students comprehend these texts by first understanding what the author is doing, then moving to interpretation and criticism. Patience is advised, as it "will get easier" with practice and familiarity.
Background and Context to Plato's Republic
Time Period and Key Figures
Historical Setting: The events and Plato's writing are set roughly in the century BC (BCE), specifically the period around the 400s BC.
Socrates (c. BCE):
The main character in most Platonic dialogues, and the book's narrator in Republic.
A real historical person and famous philosopher, known to be Plato's teacher.
Not known to be interested in politics or political philosophy directly, as portrayed in early dialogues.
Plato (c. BCE):
Socrates' student and later, Aristotle's teacher.
Wrote Republic during a period of significant turmoil and upheaval in Athens.
His thought in Republic represents his "mature thinking" on subjects of justice.
Athenian Democracy and Its Challenges
The First Democracy: Athens was the first truly democratically organized polity. It was a city-state, a political form predating the modern nation-state.
Democratic Practices: While many were excluded from citizenship, those who participated did so through a direct system, not representative. Jurors (e.g., for Socrates' trial, ~ chosen by lottery) and state administrators were selected by lot.
Golden Era: The peak of Athenian civilization, marked by significant contributions to science and culture, coincided with its democratic period. The Renaissance saw a brief rediscovery of democratic governance in Italian principalities.
Peloponnesian Wars (c. BCE):
A conflict between Athens and its rival city-state, Sparta.
Athens was eventually sacked by Sparta.
Coup of the Thirty Tyrants (404 BCE):
A coup in Athens that overthrew the democratic government and established an oligarchic regime that lasted 13 months.
Socrates and Plato were both implicated in this coup.
Plato's Dislike of Democracy: Plato was no fan of democracy, potentially stemming from the political instability of his time and especially the execution of his teacher, Socrates.
Pericles' Funeral Oration: An account by historian Thucydides, where Athenian general Pericles famously celebrated democratic Athens as a "cause worth dying for." He highlighted Athens' constitution as a "pattern to others" for its administration favoring "the many instead of the few." This rhetoric emphasized Athens as an open city, unlike Sparta's "armed fortress" approach.
Socrates' Execution (399 BCE):
Occurred during a brief restoration of democracy after Athens was sacked.
Charges: Corrupting the youth of Athens and inventing false gods.
Plato, a great admirer of Socrates, likely had his view of democracy "colored by this incident," believing a democracy that would condemn a Socrates to death was flawed.
Founding of the Academy: After Athens' political upheaval and Socrates' death, Plato retired from public life and founded the world's first university, the Academy, in a suburb of Athens (giving us the term "academia"). Republic was written around 380 BCE, 19 years after Socrates' execution.
Platonic Dialogues Classification
Early Dialogues: Socrates was alive, and Plato largely presented Socrates' teachings (since Socrates wrote nothing himself).
Late Dialogues (Republic): Though Socrates remains a character, the ideas expressed are now considered Plato's own mature thought. Socrates was not known for interest in political theory, making Republic distinct.
The Plague of Athens (c. - BCE)
Timing: Occurred during the Second Peloponnesian War, entering Southern Europe around 430 BCE.
Origin: Historians suspect it entered Athens via its port, Piraeus, leading to it being seen as an external threat.
Impact: A deadly plague that killed a quarter of the population, including Pericles (the most famous Athenian general and political leader).
Philosophical Implications:
Caused widespread suspicion, turmoil, and dissent in Athenian society.
Led many to question the "openness" that Pericles had celebrated as essential to Athenian democracy, with some concluding that democracy itself had failed.
Thucydides wrote: "The catastrophe was so overwhelming that men, not knowing what would happen next to them, became indifferent to every rule of religion or law." This illustrates the breakdown of social order and faith in established systems.
Characters in Plato's Republic
Socrates: The central character and narrator; a philosopher (lover of wisdom).
Glaucon and Adeimantus: Plato's older brothers. They are presented as sympathetic but sometimes misguided, serving to create dramatic tension and articulate positions that Socrates can challenge.
Polemarchus and Cephalus: Residents of Piraeus (the port city outside Athens, crucial for economy and military). They host the gathering where the dialogue of Republic unfolds. Cephalus is Polemarchus's father.
Thrasymachus: An antagonist and a historical figure. He was a Sophist, a rival profession to philosophers. Plato portrays him with contempt, highlighting a rivalry between philosophical pursuit of truth and rhetorical persuasion.
The Dialogue Begins: Defining Justice (Book 1)
Structure of the Dialogue and Socratic Method
The Republic is presented as a dialogue with characters interacting, creating tension through their exchanges.
Socratic Method: Plato uses Socrates' questioning technique to:
Elicit initial (often flawed) answers.
Reveal logical flaws in those answers.
Lead participants (and readers) toward "better," more critically justifiable answers.
Referencing Text: Line numbers (e.g., to ) refer to the original Greek text, starting inexplicably at at the beginning of Book 1.
Cephalus's Perspective and Initial Definition of Justice
Setting the Scene: The dialogue opens with Plato, Glaucon, and Adeimantus strolling in Piraeus and encountering Cephalus and Polemarchus.
Socrates' Interest in Old Men (328e): Socrates expresses pleasure in speaking with "very old men" because they have "gone before us," offering insights into the "road that we too may have to tread." This signifies respect and a desire to learn from their life experience.
Cephalus's View on Old Age: He agrees, stating that old age "lumps one's enjoyment of physical pleasures" (e.g., sex, for which a student's reference led to a lighthearted misunderstanding as 'Chris Kringling' by the instructor), but "one's desire for rational conversation, one's enjoyment of it increased correspondingly." This reflects a division of the human mind into bodily functions and rational functions, where freedom is achieved by controlling "mad masters" (bodily imperatives) through intellectual ones.
Wealth and Piety: Cephalus, being rich and nearing death, had been making sacrifices to the gods to absolve himself of wrongdoing and ensure a good standing. He views this as having "slayed his moral slave king" and being "absolved of sin."
Cephalus's Definition of Justice (Version 1.0 - 331c):
"Telling the truth and paying one's debts."
He believes wealth is valuable because it "contributes very greatly to one's ability to avoid both unintentional cheating and lying and the fear that one has left some sacrifice to God unmade or some debt to man unpaid before he dies." Essentially, for Cephalus, being rich makes it easier to be just because one doesn't need to cheat and can afford to fulfill all obligations.
Socrates' Critique of Cephalus/Polemarchus's Definitions
Socrates' Ironic Style: Socrates, portrayed as a "gadfly" of Athens (an annoying insect constantly prodding the city to better itself), was known for insulting those who thought themselves wise. He immediately questions Cephalus's definition.
The "Madman with a Weapon" Scenario: Socrates asks if "doing right consists simply and solely in truthfulness and returning anything that we borrowed." He provides a counter-example: if a friend borrows a weapon and then goes mad, asking for it back, "surely it would generally be agreed that one ought not to return it." This illustrates that sometimes, withholding what belongs to others or not telling the "strict truth" can be the right action. This also touches upon the long-standing ethical debate: Is lying always wrong?
Polemarchus's Refinements: Cephalus cedes the argument to his son, Polemarchus, who attempts to modify the definition:
Version 1.1: Justice is "giving every man his due." This allows for the madman not getting his weapon back.
Version 1.2: Justice is "the skill that enables us to help one's friends and injure one's enemies."
Socrates' Critique: Socrates questions this: What if one's friends are bad people and enemies are good? Should justice help bad people and harm good ones?
Version 1.3: Justice is "to do good to one's friend if he's good and harm to one's enemy if he's evil."
Socrates' Critique: Socrates argues that justice should aim to improve people, not make them worse. He concludes, "It's not the function of the just man to harm either his friends or anyone else, but it is opposite." Only an unjust person would cause harm; a just person should correct wrongdoing.
Thrasymachus's Challenge: Justice as the Interest of the Stronger
The Sophist's Entrance
Rivalry: Thrasymachus represents the Sophists, a rival group to philosophers. Sophists offered services to wealthy Athenian youth, focusing on rhetorical skill and persuasion (making "bad arguments look good," akin to modern public relations). Socrates considered them "frauds."
Dramatic Entry: Thrasymachus, having listened impatiently, "springs on us like a wild beast" (Plato's description, implying impulsive action driven by anger, lacking reason – a key distinction between humans and "wild beasts").
Thrasymachus's Definition (Version 2.0)
"Justice is simply what's in the interest of the stronger party."
Interpretation: This can be rephrased as "might makes right." The stronger party (the ruling class) controls society and makes laws that serve their interests. These laws then define what is "right" and "wrong."
Implications:
Exploitative: It reflects existing power relations, where rules benefit those in power, and the powerless must obey.
Relativism/Nihilism: Justice is not universal or absolute; it depends on current laws and rulers. An "unjust law" would be an impossible concept under this definition. (Contrasted with Martin Luther King Jr.'s later view on civil disobedience against unjust laws).
Appeal to Power: This view is attractive to the powerful, as it legitimizes their authority and self-interest.
Comparison to Marx (as noted by Lee in an older introduction): Thrasymachus's view shares similarities with Marx's concept of political power as "merely the organized power of one class for oppressing another" and conventional morality as a "byproduct of the process of oppression and exploitation." However, unlike Marx, Thrasymachus sees class conflict as a permanent societal feature and naturalizes the pursuit of self-interest (epitomized by the tyrant).
Justice as Obedience: For the ruled, justice is simply obeying the commands of the rulers. For rulers, they can change laws as they wish.
Considered a "realist view of justice."
Thrasymachus's Exit: He expresses his views with anger and then "bursts out of the frame," unable to maintain a calm, moderate discussion.
Glaucon's Challenge to Socrates: The Ring of Gyges
Justice as an Extrinsic Good (Version 2.1): Glaucon rearticulates Thrasymachus's general idea, arguing that justice is something "painful" or "unpleasant" that people pursue only for its "extrinsic rewards" – specifically, the reputation it brings.
Analogy: Like exercise or going to the dentist; we endure the unpleasantness for future benefits.
The Reward: A reputation for justice leads to positive interactions, trust, and benefits in commerce and society. Conversely, a reputation for injustice hinders these positive outcomes.
The Myth of the Ring of Gyges:
Story: A cousin (Gyges) finds a magical ring that grants invisibility. He uses this power to commit acts of injustice undetected: he kills the king, seduces the queen, and becomes the new king, gaining wealth and power without ever suffering the consequences or reputation of his unjust actions.
Glaucon's Purpose: To illustrate that if one could commit injustice successfully (i.e., without being detected, thereby maintaining a reputation for justice), anyone would do so. The ring allows successful injustice while preserving the benefits of a just reputation.
Rhetorical Question: Glaucon asks rhetorically if anyone, given the Ring of Gyges, would not use it to act unjustly.
The Central Challenge for the Republic:
Socrates believes that justice is something intrinsically good, not merely valuable for its external reputation or rewards.
The core task of the rest of the Republic will be for Socrates to demonstrate that justice is "good in itself" and brings "intrinsic rewards" to the individual, beyond any external benefits or reputation.