3.1: Civil Society

• Civil Society: Refers to the space between the state and the individual, where citizens come together to form groups and organizations to pursue common interests and goals.

• It is made up of non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community groups, religious organizations, labor unions, and other voluntary associations.

• It plays a crucial role in promoting democracy, human rights, and social justice by providing a platform for citizens to voice their concerns and hold governments accountable.

• Civil society organizations (CSOs) also provide essential services such as healthcare, education, and disaster relief, often in areas where the state is unable to provide adequate support.

• CSOs can also act as a bridge between the state and the people, facilitating dialogue and cooperation between the two.

• However, civil society is not without its challenges. CSOs may face restrictions on their activities and funding, and there may be tensions between different groups within civil society.

• Despite these challenges, civil society remains a vital component of democratic societies, providing a voice for citizens and promoting social change.

Civil Society Organizations

• Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) are non-governmental, non-profit organizations that operate independently from the government and the private sector.

• They are formed by individuals who share common interests and goals, and work towards promoting social, economic, and political change.

Types of CSOs

• Advocacy groups: These organizations work towards influencing public policy and decision-making processes.

• Community-based organizations: These organizations work at the grassroots level to address local issues and improve the quality of life of the community.

• Professional associations: These organizations represent professionals in a particular field and work towards promoting their interests.

• Faith-based organizations: These organizations are formed around a particular religious belief and work towards promoting social and economic development.

Functions of CSOs

• Advocacy and lobbying: CSOs work towards influencing public policy and decision-making processes by advocating for the rights and interests of their members.

• Service delivery: CSOs provide services to the community, such as healthcare, education, and social welfare.

• Capacity building: CSOs work towards building the capacity of individuals and communities to participate in decision-making processes and to promote social and economic development.

• Monitoring and evaluation: CSOs monitor and evaluate the implementation of policies and programs to ensure that they are effective and efficient.

Challenges faced by CSOs

• Funding: CSOs often struggle to secure funding to support their activities and programs.

• Government regulations: CSOs may face restrictions and regulations imposed by the government, which can limit their ability to operate freely.

• Lack of public support: CSOs may struggle to gain public support and recognition for their work, which can limit their impact.

• Internal management: CSOs may face challenges in managing their internal operations, such as recruiting and retaining staff, and ensuring accountability and transparency.

Examples of Non-Governmental Organizations

• In the UK, civil society organizations like Oxfam and Amnesty International have been active for decades, advocating for human rights and social justice.

• In Russia, groups like Memorial and the Moscow Helsinki Group have faced government opposition, but continue to work towards preserving historical memory and promoting human rights.

• In China, civil society groups like the China Development Brief and the Beijing LGBT Center have faced increasing government restrictions, but still work to promote social and environmental justice.

• In Iran, groups like the Center for Supporters of Human Rights and the Society for Protecting the Rights of the Child advocate for human rights in a challenging political climate.

• In Mexico, groups like the Mexican Commission for the Defense and Promotion of Human Rights and the National Network of Civil Human Rights Organizations work to address issues like violence and corruption.

• In Nigeria, organizations like the Civil Society Legislative Advocacy Centre and the Centre for Democracy and Development have played important roles in promoting democracy and good governance.

Limitations of Civil Society

• Limited representation: Civil society organizations may not represent the views and interests of all members of society. They may be dominated by certain groups or individuals, and may not be inclusive of marginalized communities.

• Lack of resources: Civil society organizations may lack the resources and funding needed to effectively carry out their activities and initiatives. This can limit their impact and reach.

• Political interference: Civil society organizations may face political interference and restrictions on their activities, particularly in authoritarian regimes. This can limit their ability to advocate for change and hold those in power accountable.

• Fragmentation: Civil society organizations may be fragmented and lack coordination, which can limit their ability to effectively address complex social issues.

• Limited impact: Civil society organizations may struggle to achieve meaningful impact and bring about lasting change, particularly in the face of entrenched social and political structures.

3.2: Political Culture

• Political culture: Refers to the shared beliefs, values, attitudes, and behaviors that shape the political life of a society.

  • It is the way people think and feel about politics, and how they act on those thoughts and feelings.

  • It is shaped by a variety of factors, including history, geography, religion, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status.

• Parochial political culture: It is characterized by a lack of interest and involvement in politics. People in these cultures tend to be focused on their own personal lives and do not see politics as relevant to their daily lives.

• Subject political culture: It is characterized by a passive acceptance of the political system. People in these cultures may not be actively involved in politics, but they accept the legitimacy of the government and its authority.

• Participant political culture: It is characterized by active involvement in politics. People in these cultures are engaged in the political process and believe that they can make a difference through their participation.

Comparing Political Culture

• United Kingdom (UK)

  • Political culture is characterized by a strong emphasis on individualism, democracy, and the rule of law.

  • The UK has a long history of parliamentary democracy, with a constitutional monarchy as the head of state.

  • The country has a two-party system dominated by the Conservative Party and the Labour Party.

  • The UK has a strong tradition of civil society and a free press, which play an important role in shaping public opinion.

• Russia

  • Political culture is characterized by a strong emphasis on state power and authority.

  • The country has a long history of authoritarian rule, with a strong central government and a powerful presidency.

  • The Russian Orthodox Church plays an important role in shaping public opinion and supporting the government.

  • The country has a strong tradition of nationalism and a sense of pride in its history and culture.

• China

  • Political culture is characterized by a strong emphasis on collectivism, obedience to authority, and the importance of the state over the individual.

  • The country has a one-party system dominated by the Chinese Communist Party.

  • The government exercises tight control over the media and the internet, and dissent is not tolerated.

  • The country has a strong sense of national pride and a focus on economic development and modernization.

• Iran

  • Political culture is characterized by a strong emphasis on religion and the importance of Islamic law.

  • The country has a theocratic system of government, with ultimate authority resting with the Supreme Leader.

  • The government exercises tight control over the media and the internet, and dissent is not tolerated.

  • The country has a strong sense of national pride and a focus on preserving its Islamic identity.

• Mexico

  • Political culture is characterized by a strong emphasis on family, community, and personal relationships.

  • The country has a long history of corruption and a weak rule of law.

  • The political system is dominated by two major parties, the Institutional Revolutionary Party and the National Action Party.

  • The country has a strong tradition of civil society and a free press, which play an important role in shaping public opinion.

• Nigeria

  • Political culture is characterized by a strong emphasis on ethnicity and regional identity.

  • The country has a history of military rule and a weak rule of law.

  • The political system is dominated by two major parties, the People's Democratic Party and the All Progressives Congress.

  • The country has a strong tradition of civil society and a free press.

Political Socialization

• Political socialization: Refers to the process by which individuals acquire their political beliefs, values, and attitudes. It is a lifelong process that begins in childhood and continues throughout one's life.

Agents of socialization

• There are various agents of socialization that influence an individual's political beliefs.

• These include family, school, peers, media, religion, and government.

• Family is considered the most important agent of political socialization as parents are the first to introduce children to political ideas and values.

Stages of political socialization

• Political socialization occurs in different stages.

• In the early stages, children learn about the basic concepts of politics such as democracy, authority, and power.

• In the later stages, they develop more complex political beliefs and attitudes.

Factors influencing political socialization

• There are several factors that influence political socialization.

• These include gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and geography.

• For example, individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds may have different political beliefs and attitudes.

Impact of political socialization

• Political socialization has a significant impact on an individual's political behavior.

• It shapes their political beliefs, attitudes, and values, and influences their participation in political activities such as voting, joining political parties, and engaging in political discussions.

Challenges to political socialization

• There are several challenges to political socialization.

• These include the influence of fake news and misinformation, the rise of social media, and the increasing polarization of political beliefs.

How is Political Socialization Different in Democratic vs. Authoritarian countries?

• Democratic Countries

  • In democratic countries, political socialization occurs through various channels such as family, education, media, and peer groups.

  • Citizens are exposed to different political ideologies and are encouraged to participate in the political process.

  • Democratic countries promote freedom of speech, assembly, and association, which allows citizens to express their political views without fear of persecution.

• Authoritarian Countries

  • In authoritarian countries, political socialization is controlled by the state. The government controls the media, education, and other channels of communication to promote a specific political ideology.

  • Citizens are not encouraged to participate in the political process, and those who do are often persecuted. The government restricts freedom of speech, assembly, and association, which limits citizens' ability to express their political views.

3.3: Political Ideologies

• Political ideologies are sets of beliefs and values that shape the way people think about politics, society, and the role of government. They provide a framework for understanding how power should be distributed, how resources should be allocated, and how society should be organized.

Types of Political Ideologies

• Liberalism: This ideology emphasizes individual freedom, equality, and the protection of civil liberties. It advocates for a limited government that protects individual rights and promotes economic growth through free markets.

• Conservatism: This ideology emphasizes tradition, order, and stability. It advocates for a strong government that protects traditional values and promotes economic growth through free markets.

• Socialism: This ideology emphasizes social equality and the redistribution of wealth. It advocates for a strong government that controls the means of production and promotes social welfare.

• Communism: This ideology emphasizes the elimination of private property and the establishment of a classless society. It advocates for a strong government that controls all aspects of society and the economy.

• Fascism: This ideology emphasizes nationalism, authoritarianism, and the suppression of individual rights. It advocates for a strong government that controls all aspects of society and promotes the interests of the nation.

Aspects of Political Ideologies

• Economic Philosophy

  • One of the most important aspects of political ideologies is their economic philosophy.

  • This refers to their views on how the economy should be organized and managed.

  • Some ideologies, such as socialism and communism, advocate for a more centralized and planned economy, while others, such as capitalism and libertarianism, prioritize free markets and individual economic freedom.

• Role of Government

  • Another key aspect of political ideologies is their view on the role of government in society.

  • Some ideologies, such as conservatism and fascism, emphasize the importance of a strong and centralized government to maintain order and stability.

  • Others, such as anarchism and libertarianism, prioritize individual freedom and limited government intervention.

• Social Issues

  • Political ideologies also differ in their views on social issues such as gender, race, and sexuality.

  • Some ideologies, such as liberalism and progressivism, prioritize social justice and equality, while others, such as conservatism and traditionalism, emphasize traditional values and social norms.

• Foreign Policy

  • Finally, political ideologies also differ in their views on foreign policy and international relations.

  • Some ideologies, such as isolationism and pacifism, prioritize non-intervention and peaceful diplomacy.

  • Others, such as neoconservatism and imperialism, prioritize military strength and interventionism.

3.4: Political Beliefs and Values

• Political beliefs and values refer to the ideas and principles that individuals hold about the role of government, the distribution of power, and the rights and responsibilities of citizens.

• These beliefs and values shape political attitudes and behavior, and influence the way people vote, participate in political activities, and engage with public issues.

Types of Political Beliefs and Values

• Liberalism: This political ideology emphasizes individual freedom, equality, and social justice. Liberals believe in a strong government that provides social welfare programs, protects civil liberties, and promotes economic equality.

• Conservatism: This political ideology emphasizes tradition, order, and individual responsibility. Conservatives believe in limited government, free markets, and individual rights.

• Socialism: This political ideology emphasizes collective ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods and services. Socialists believe in a strong government that provides social welfare programs, regulates the economy, and promotes economic equality.

• Communism: This political ideology emphasizes the abolition of private property and the establishment of a classless society. Communists believe in a strong government that controls all aspects of the economy and promotes social equality.

Factors Influencing Political Beliefs and Values

• Family and Socialization: Political beliefs and values are often shaped by family and socialization. Children tend to adopt the political beliefs and values of their parents and peers.

• Education: Education plays a significant role in shaping political beliefs and values. Individuals with higher levels of education tend to have more liberal political beliefs and values.

• Media: The media can influence political beliefs and values by shaping public opinion and framing political issues.

• Economic Status: Economic status can influence political beliefs and values. Individuals with lower incomes tend to have more liberal political beliefs and values, while individuals with higher incomes tend to have more conservative political beliefs and values.

3.5: Nature and Role of Political Participation

• Political participation: Refers to the various ways in which citizens engage in the political process. It is a fundamental aspect of democracy and plays a crucial role in shaping the political landscape of a country.

Nature of Political Participation

• Voluntary: Political participation is a voluntary act and individuals participate in politics based on their own interests and motivations.

• Diverse: Political participation takes various forms such as voting, attending rallies, joining political parties, writing letters to elected representatives, and engaging in social media activism.

• Inclusive: Political participation is inclusive and open to all citizens regardless of their social, economic, or political status.

• Dynamic: Political participation is a dynamic process that evolves over time and is influenced by various factors such as technological advancements, social movements, and changing political ideologies.

Role of Political Participation

• Representation: Political participation ensures that citizens are represented in the political process and their voices are heard by elected representatives.

• Accountability: Political participation holds elected representatives accountable for their actions and decisions.

• Legitimacy: Political participation enhances the legitimacy of the political system by ensuring that citizens have a say in the decision-making process.

• Social Change: Political participation can bring about social change by mobilizing citizens to demand reforms and changes in the political system.

Violent Political Behaviours in Core Course Countries

• UK

  • Murder of MP Jo Cox by a far-right extremist in 2016

  • Bombing of the Grand Hotel in Brighton by the IRA in 1984

  • London nail bombings by far-right extremist David Copeland in 1999

• Russia

  • Assassination of opposition leader Boris Nemtsov in 2015

  • Poisoning of former spy Sergei Skripal and his daughter in 2018

  • Murder of journalist Anna Politkovskaya in 2006

• China

  • Tiananmen Square massacre in 1989

  • Crackdown on pro-democracy protests in Hong Kong in 2019

  • Persecution of Uighur Muslims in Xinjiang region

• Iran

  • Assassination of nuclear scientist Mohsen Fakhrizadeh in 2020

  • Attack on Saudi oil facilities in 2019, allegedly carried out by Iran

  • Bombing of Jewish community center in Buenos Aires, Argentina in 1994, blamed on Iran

• Mexico

  • Disappearance of 43 students in Ayotzinapa in 2014

  • Massacre of 72 migrants in San Fernando in 2010

  • Assassination of journalist Javier Valdez in 2017

• Nigeria

  • Boko Haram insurgency, including kidnapping of schoolgirls in Chibok in 2014

  • Fulani herdsmen attacks on farmers in central Nigeria

  • Police brutality and crackdown on #EndSARS protests in 2020

3.6: Forces that Impact Political Participation

• Socioeconomic status: People with higher levels of education and income are more likely to participate in politics. This is because they have more resources, such as time and money, to devote to political activities.

• Age: Younger people are less likely to participate in politics than older people. This is partly because they may not have developed a strong sense of political identity or may not have had as many opportunities to participate.

• Race and ethnicity: People of color are often underrepresented in the political process. This can be due to a variety of factors, including historical discrimination, language barriers, and lack of access to political resources.

• Gender: Women are often underrepresented in politics, particularly in leadership positions. This can be due to a variety of factors, including gender stereotypes and discrimination.

• Political environment: The political environment can impact political participation. For example, if people feel that their vote does not matter or that the political system is corrupt, they may be less likely to participate.

• Social networks: People are more likely to participate in politics if they are part of a social network that values political engagement. This can include family, friends, and community organizations.

3.7: Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

Civil Rights

• Civil rights are the rights that are guaranteed to every citizen by the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

• These rights are designed to protect individuals from discrimination based on their race, gender, religion, or other characteristics.

• Examples of civil rights include the right to vote, the right to a fair trial, and the right to equal protection under the law.

• Civil rights are enforced by the government through laws and regulations.

Civil Liberties

• Civil liberties are the individual freedoms that are protected by the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

• These liberties include freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press.

• Civil liberties are designed to protect individuals from government interference in their personal lives.

• The government is limited in its ability to restrict civil liberties, and any restrictions must be justified by a compelling government interest.

Differences between Civil Rights and Civil Liberties

• Civil rights are focused on protecting individuals from discrimination, while civil liberties are focused on protecting individual freedoms.

• Civil rights are enforced by the government, while civil liberties are protected from government interference.

• Civil rights are often the subject of legal battles and court cases, while civil liberties are often the subject of political debates and public discourse.

3.8: Political and Social Cleavages

Political Cleavages

• Political cleavages: These are the divisions that exist within a political system. These divisions can be based on various factors such as ideology, political parties, and interest groups. Political cleavages can have a significant impact on the functioning of a political system.

• Left-Right divide: This is a political cleavage based on ideology. The left is associated with progressive and liberal ideas, while the right is associated with conservative and traditional ideas.

• Nationalism-Internationalism divide: This is a political cleavage based on the idea of the nation-state. Nationalists believe in the importance of the nation-state, while internationalists believe in the importance of global cooperation and integration.

• Urban-Rural divide: This is a political cleavage based on the differences between urban and rural areas. Urban areas are associated with progressive and liberal ideas, while rural areas are associated with conservative and traditional ideas.

Social Cleavages

• Social cleavages: These are the divisions that exist within a society. These divisions can be based on various factors such as religion, ethnicity, language, class, and gender. Social cleavages can have a significant impact on the social and economic development of a society.

• Ethnic and racial divide: This is a social cleavage based on ethnicity and race. It can lead to discrimination and inequality in a society.

• Gender divide: This is a social cleavage based on gender. It can lead to discrimination and inequality in a society.

• Class divide: This is a social cleavage based on economic class. It can lead to inequality and social unrest in a society.

3.9: Challenges of Political and Social Cleavages

Political Challenges

• Polarization

  • Political cleavages can lead to polarization, where individuals and groups become increasingly divided and entrenched in their positions. This can make it difficult to find common ground and compromise, leading to political gridlock and a lack of progress on important issues.

• Fragmentation

  • Political cleavages can also lead to fragmentation, where different groups within society become increasingly isolated from one another. This can lead to a breakdown in communication and cooperation, making it difficult to address shared challenges and pursue common goals.

• Extremism

  • Political cleavages can also create fertile ground for extremism, as individuals and groups become more willing to adopt extreme positions and tactics in order to advance their interests. This can lead to violence and instability, undermining the stability and legitimacy of political institutions.

Social Challenges

• Discrimination

  • Social cleavages can lead to discrimination, where individuals and groups are treated unfairly based on their race, ethnicity, religion, gender, or other factors. This can lead to social exclusion, marginalization, and inequality, perpetuating social divisions and hindering social progress.

• Prejudice

  • Social cleavages can also lead to prejudice, where individuals and groups develop negative attitudes and stereotypes towards others based on their identity. This can lead to social tension and conflict, making it difficult to build trust and cooperation across social divides.

• Inequality

  • Social cleavages can also contribute to inequality, where individuals and groups have unequal access to resources, opportunities, and power. This can perpetuate social divisions and undermine social cohesion, making it difficult to build a fair and just society.