Nationalism in India: Comprehensive Notes
Nationalism in India
Emergence of Nationalism in India
Modern nationalism in Europe led to the formation of nation-states and altered people's understanding of identity and belonging.
New symbols, icons, songs, and ideas created unity and redefined community boundaries.
National identity formation was a lengthy process in most countries.
In India, modern nationalism was linked to the anti-colonial movement.
Struggling against colonialism fostered unity among people.
Colonial oppression created a shared bond, but different groups experienced colonialism differently, leading to varied notions of freedom.
The Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed to unite these groups, but unity was not without conflict.
The chapter focuses on the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements from the 1920s.
It explores the Congress's efforts to develop the national movement, the participation of different social groups, and how nationalism captured people's imagination.
The First World War, Khilafat, and Non-Cooperation
Post-1919, the national movement expanded, incorporating new social groups and methods of struggle.
The war created a new economic and political landscape.
Increased defense expenditure was financed through war loans and rising taxes, including customs duties and income tax.
Prices doubled between 1913 and 1918, causing hardship for common people.
Villages were required to supply soldiers, leading to forced recruitment and widespread anger in rural areas.
Crop failures in 1918-19 and 1920-21 resulted in food shortages, accompanied by an influenza epidemic.
The 1921 census reported that 12 to 13 million people died from famines and the epidemic.
People hoped for relief after the war, but it did not happen.
The Idea of Satyagraha
Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 from South Africa.
He had successfully fought the racist regime using satyagraha, a method of mass agitation.
Satyagraha stressed the power of truth and the search for truth.
If the cause was just and the struggle against injustice, physical force was unnecessary.
Satyagrahis could win through non-violence by appealing to the oppressor's conscience.
People, including oppressors, could be persuaded to see the truth without violence.
Gandhi believed non-violence could unite all Indians.
In 1917, he inspired peasants in Champaran, Bihar, to resist the oppressive plantation system.
In 1917, he organized a satyagraha in Kheda, Gujarat, to support peasants affected by crop failure and plague who could not pay revenue and demanded relaxation in revenue collection.
In 1918, Gandhi organized a satyagraha movement among cotton mill workers in Ahmedabad.
The Rowlatt Act
In 1919, Gandhi launched a nationwide satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act (1919).
The Act granted the government power to repress political activities and detain political prisoners for two years without trial.
Gandhi advocated non-violent civil disobedience against unjust laws, starting with a hartal on April 6.
Rallies were organized, workers went on strike, and shops closed down.
The British administration clamped down on nationalists, arresting local leaders and barring Gandhi from Delhi.
On April 10, police in Amritsar fired on a peaceful procession, leading to attacks on banks, post offices, and railway stations.
Martial law was imposed, and General Dyer took command.
On April 13, the Jallianwalla Bagh incident occurred, where Dyer ordered his troops to fire on a large crowd, killing hundreds.
Dyer aimed to create a moral effect and terrorize satyagrahis.
News of Jallianwalla Bagh led to strikes, clashes with police, and attacks on government buildings in north Indian towns.
The government responded with brutal repression, including forcing satyagrahis to humiliate themselves, flogging people, and bombing villages.
Gandhi called off the movement due to the widespread violence.
Khilafat Issue and Non-Cooperation
Gandhi felt the need for a broad-based movement involving Hindus and Muslims.
The First World War led to the defeat of Ottoman Turkey, and rumors of a harsh treaty for the Ottoman emperor (the Khalifa).
The Khalifa was the spiritual head of the Islamic world.
To defend the Khalifa's powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay in March 1919.
Muslim leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali discussed a united mass action with Gandhi.
Gandhi saw this as an opportunity to unite Muslims under a national movement.
At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, he advocated for a non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat and swaraj.
In his book Hind Swaraj (1909), Gandhi stated that British rule was established and sustained by Indian cooperation.
He believed that non-cooperation would lead to the collapse of British rule within a year and bring swaraj.
Stages of Non-Cooperation
The movement would start with the surrender of government-awarded titles and a boycott of civil services, the army, the police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods.
If the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
During the summer of 1920, Gandhi and Shaukat Ali campaigned to mobilize support.
Many Congress members were concerned about boycotting the November 1920 council elections and feared violence.
A compromise was reached at the Congress session in Nagpur in December 1920, and the Non-Cooperation program was adopted.
Differing Strands within the Movement
Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement
Began in January 1921.
Various social groups participated with their own aspirations.
All responded to the call of Swaraj, but the term had different meanings for different people.
Movement in the Towns
Started with middle-class participation in cities.
Students left government schools and colleges, headmasters and teachers resigned, and lawyers gave up legal practices.
Council elections were boycotted, except in Madras, where the Justice Party of non-Brahmans sought power.
The economic effects were significant, with foreign goods boycotted, liquor shops picketed, and foreign cloth burned.
Import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922, dropping from crore to crore (Historical monetary values).
Merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods.
Indian textile mills and handlooms increased production as people wore Indian clothes.
The movement in cities slowed down because khadi cloth was more expensive and alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop.
Students and teachers returned to government schools, and lawyers rejoined government courts.
Rebellion in the Countryside
The Non-Cooperation Movement spread from cities to the countryside.
It drew in struggles of peasants and tribals.
In Awadh, peasants were led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi.
The movement was against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents and cesses.
Peasants had to do begar (forced labor) without payment and had no security of tenure.
The peasant movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
Nai-dhobi bandhs (barber and washermen services boycott) were organized to deprive landlords of services.
In June 1920, Jawaharlal Nehru engaged with villagers in Awadh to understand their grievances.
The Oudh Kisan Sabha was set up in October, headed by Jawaharlal Nehru, Baba Ramchandra, and others.
Over 300 branches were established within a month.
The Congress aimed to integrate the Awadh peasant struggle into the wider Non-Cooperation Movement.
The peasant movement developed in ways that the Congress leadership didn't approve of; houses of talukdars and merchants were attacked, bazaars were looted, and grain hoards were taken over.
Local leaders told peasants that Gandhi had declared no taxes were to be paid and land was to be redistributed among the poor.
The name of Mahatma Gandhi was being used to justify all actions and aspirations.
Tribal Peasants
Tribal peasants interpreted Mahatma Gandhi's message and swaraj differently.
In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, a militant guerrilla movement spread in the early 1920s.
The colonial government had closed forest areas, preventing people from grazing cattle or collecting fuelwood and fruits.
This affected livelihoods and denied traditional rights.
The hill people revolted when forced to contribute begar for road building.
Alluri Sitaram Raju led them, claiming special powers and that he was an incarnation of God.
Raju spoke of Gandhi's greatness, promoted khadi, and urged people to give up drinking, but asserted that India could only be liberated by force.
The Gudem rebels attacked police stations, tried to kill British officials, and carried on guerrilla warfare for swaraj.
Raju was captured and executed in 1924, becoming a folk hero.
Swaraj in the Plantations
Plantation workers in Assam had their own understanding of swaraj.
Freedom meant the right to move freely and retain links with their villages.
Under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, workers couldn't leave tea gardens without permission.
Hearing of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied authorities and headed home, believing Gandhi Raj was coming and they would be given land.
They never reached their destinations; they were stranded by a railway and steamer strike and were caught and beaten by the police.
Visions of the Movements
The visions of these movements were not defined by the Congress program.
They interpreted swaraj as a time when suffering and troubles would end.
When tribals chanted Gandhi's name and demanded 'Swatantra Bharat,' they were emotionally connecting to an all-India agitation.
When they acted in Gandhi's name or linked their movement to the Congress, they were identifying with a movement beyond their locality.
Towards Civil Disobedience
In February 1922, Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement because it was turning violent and satyagrahis needed training.
Some Congress leaders were tired of mass struggles and wanted to participate in elections to the provincial councils set up by the Government of India Act of 1919 to oppose British policies and argue for reform.
C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed the Swaraj Party to advocate for council politics.
Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose wanted more radical mass agitation and full independence.
Two factors shaped Indian politics in the late 1920s: the worldwide economic depression and the Simon Commission.
Economic Depression
Agricultural prices began to fall from 1926 and collapsed after 1930.
As demand fell and exports declined, peasants struggled to sell harvests and pay revenue.
By 1930, the countryside was in turmoil.
Simon Commission
The new Tory government in Britain formed a Statutory Commission under Sir John Simon to review the constitutional system in India and suggest changes.
The commission lacked any Indian members, which was a major issue.
When the Simon Commission arrived in India in 1928, it was met with the slogan 'Go back Simon'.
All parties, including the Congress and the Muslim League, participated in demonstrations.
The viceroy, Lord Irwin, offered 'dominion status' in the future and a Round Table Conference to discuss a future constitution, but this was not satisfactory.
Radicals within the Congress, led by Nehru and Bose, became more assertive.
Liberals and moderates lost influence.
In December 1929, under Nehru, the Lahore Congress formalized the demand for 'Purna Swaraj' (full independence) for India.
January 26, 1930, was declared Independence Day, but celebrations attracted little attention.
Gandhi needed to connect the idea of freedom to everyday life.
The Salt March and the Civil Disobedience Movement
Gandhi saw salt as a powerful symbol to unite the nation.
On January 31, 1930, he sent a letter to Viceroy Irwin with eleven demands.
Some demands were general, while others were class-specific.
The demands aimed to be wide-ranging to unite all classes.
The most stirring demand was to abolish the salt tax, which affected everyone.
Gandhi stated that the tax on salt and the government monopoly over its production revealed the most oppressive face of British rule.
The letter was an ultimatum: if demands weren't met by March 11, the Congress would launch a civil disobedience campaign.
Irwin refused to negotiate.
Gandhi started his famous salt march with 78 volunteers, covering over 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi.
The volunteers walked for 24 days, about 10 miles a day.
Thousands gathered to hear Gandhi, who spoke about swaraj and urged peaceful defiance.
On April 6, he reached Dandi and violated the law by manufacturing salt from seawater, marking the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement.
This movement differed from the Non-Cooperation Movement in that people were asked to not only refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws.
People broke the salt law, boycotted foreign cloth, and picketed liquor shops.
Peasants refused to pay revenue and chaukidari taxes; village officials resigned; and forest people violated forest laws.
The government arrested Congress leaders, leading to violent clashes.
When Abdul Ghaffar Khan was arrested in April 1930, crowds demonstrated in Peshawar, facing armored cars and police firing.
When Gandhi was arrested, industrial workers in Sholapur attacked police posts, municipal buildings, law courts, and railway stations.
The government responded with brutal repression, attacking peaceful satyagrahis, and arresting about 100,000 people.
Gandhi called off the movement and entered into the Gandhi-Irwin Pact on March 5, 1931.
Gandhi agreed to participate in a Round Table Conference in London, and the government agreed to release political prisoners.
In December 1931, Gandhi went to London, but negotiations failed.
Back in India, the government had begun a new cycle of repression, and the Congress had been declared illegal.
Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement with apprehension.
The movement continued for over a year but lost momentum by 1934.
How Participants Saw the Movement
Different social groups participated in the Civil Disobedience Movement with their own ideals, and meanings for swaraj.
Rich Peasant Communities
Rich peasant communities, like the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh, the movement.
As producers of commercial crops, they were hit hard by the trade depression and falling prices.
They struggled to pay the government's revenue demand, leading to widespread resentment.
These rich peasants were enthusiastic supporters, organizing communities and sometimes forcing reluctant members to participate in boycott programs.
For them, swaraj was a struggle against high revenues.
They were disappointed when the movement was called off in 1931 without revenue rates being revised.
Many refused to participate when the movement was restarted in 1932.
Poorer Peasants
Poorer peasants were interested in lowering the revenue demand.
Many were small tenants renting land from landlords who found it difficult to pay rent during the Depression.
They wanted unpaid rent to be remitted and joined radical movements, often led by Socialists and Communists.
The Congress was unwilling to support 'no rent' campaigns to avoid upsetting the rich peasants and landlords.
The relationship between the poor peasants and the Congress remained uncertain.
Business Classes
Indian merchants and industrialists made huge profits during the First World War and wanted to expand their businesses.
They resisted colonial policies that restricted business activities.
They wanted protection against imports and a rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio that would discourage imports.
They formed the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI) in 1927.
Led by industrialists like Purshottamdas Thakurdas and G. D. Birla, they attacked colonial control over the Indian economy and supported the Civil Disobedience Movement initially.
They provided financial assistance and refused to buy or sell imported goods.
Most businessmen saw swaraj as a time when colonial restrictions would end and trade and industry would flourish.
After the failure of the Round Table Conference, business groups were no longer uniformly enthusiastic because they were worried about militant activities, business disruption, and the growing influence of socialism.
Industrial Working Classes
The industrial working classes did not participate in large numbers, except in the Nagpur region.
As industrialists came closer to the Congress, workers remained aloof.
Some workers participated, adopting ideas like boycott of foreign goods as part of their movements against low wages and poor working conditions.
There were strikes by railway workers in 1930 and dockworkers in 1932.
In 1930, thousands of workers in Chotanagpur tin mines wore Gandhi caps and participated in protest rallies and boycott campaigns.
The Congress was reluctant to include workers' demands to avoid alienating industrialists.
Women
The Civil Disobedience Movement saw large-scale participation of women.
Thousands of women came out to listen to Gandhi during his salt march and participated in protest marches, salt manufacturing, and picketing.
Many went to jail.
In urban areas, women were from high-caste families, while in rural areas, they were from rich peasant households.
Inspired by Gandhi's call, they saw service to the nation as a sacred duty.
This increased public role didn't necessarily change the traditional view of women's position.
Gandhi believed women should look after home and hearth, be good mothers and wives.
The Congress was reluctant to allow women to hold positions of authority and focused on their symbolic presence.
The Limits of Civil Disobedience
Not all social groups were moved by the abstract concept of swaraj.
One such group was the 'untouchables,' who from around the 1930s had begun to call themselves dalit or oppressed.
The Congress had long ignored the dalits to avoid offending the sanatanis (conservative high-caste Hindus).
Mahatma Gandhi declared that swaraj would not come for a hundred years if untouchability was not eliminated.
He called them harijan (children of God) and organized satyagraha to secure their entry into temples and access to public wells, tanks, roads, and schools.
He cleaned toilets to dignify the work of sweepers and persuaded upper castes to change their hearts and give up untouchability.
Many dalit leaders wanted a different political solution, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions and separate electorates.
They believed political empowerment would resolve their social disabilities.
Dalit participation in the Civil Disobedience Movement was limited, especially in Maharashtra and Nagpur, where their organization was strong.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who organized the dalits into the Depressed Classes Association in 1930, clashed with Gandhi at the second Round Table Conference over separate electorates.
When the British government conceded Ambedkar's demand, Gandhi began a fast unto death, believing it would slow down their integration into society.
Ambedkar accepted Gandhi's position, resulting in the Poona Pact of September 1932, which gave the Depressed Classes reserved seats in provincial and central legislative councils, but they were to be voted in by the general electorate.
The dalit movement remained apprehensive of the Congress-led national movement.
Muslim Political Organizations
Some Muslim political organizations in India were lukewarm in their response to the Civil Disobedience Movement.
After the decline of the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement, many Muslims felt alienated from the Congress.
From the mid-1920s, the Congress was more visibly associated with Hindu religious nationalist groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
As relations worsened, each community organized religious processions, provoking communal clashes and riots.
These riots deepened the distance between the two communities.
The Congress and the Muslim League tried to renegotiate an alliance, and in 1927, unity seemed possible.
The main differences were over representation in future assemblies.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah was willing to give up separate electorates if Muslims were assured reserved seats in the Central Assembly and representation in proportion to population in Muslim-dominated provinces.
Negotiations failed at the All Parties Conference in 1928 when M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha opposed compromise.
An atmosphere of suspicion and distrust existed when the Civil Disobedience Movement started.
Alienated from the Congress, many Muslims couldn't respond to the call for a united struggle.
Many Muslim leaders and intellectuals were concerned about the status of Muslims as a minority and feared their culture and identity would be submerged under Hindu majority domination.
In 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal reiterated the importance of separate electorates as a safeguard for Muslim political interests, which influenced the Pakistan demand.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Nationalism spreads when people believe they are part of the same nation and discover unity.
This sense of belonging came through united struggles and cultural processes like history, fiction, folklore, songs, popular prints, and symbols.
The identity of the nation is often symbolized in a figure or image.
In the twentieth century, the identity of India was visually associated with the image of Bharat Mata.
The image was first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, who wrote 'Vande Mataram' as a hymn to the motherland.
Later, it was included in his novel Anandamath and sung during the Swadeshi movement in Bengal.
Abanindranath Tagore painted the famous image of Bharat Mata portrayed as an ascetic figure, calm, composed, divine, and spiritual.
The image of Bharat Mata acquired many different forms and was seen as evidence of one’s nationalism.
Ideas of nationalism also developed through a movement to revive Indian folklore as nationalists recorded folk tales and gathered folk songs and legends.
They believed these tales portrayed traditional culture corrupted by outside forces and preserving it was essential to discover one’s national identity and restore pride in one’s past.
Rabindranath Tagore collected ballads, nursery rhymes, and myths, and led the movement for folk revival.
Natesa Sastri published a four-volume collection of Tamil folk tales, The Folklore of Southern India, viewing folklore as national literature.
Nationalist leaders recognized icons and symbols to unify people and inspire nationalism.
During the Swadeshi movement in Bengal, a tricolor flag (red, green, and yellow) was designed with eight lotuses representing provinces and a crescent moon symbolizing Hindus and Muslims.
By 1921, Gandhi had designed the Swaraj flag, which was also a tricolor (red, green, and white) with a spinning wheel in the center.
Carrying the flag became a symbol of defiance.
Reinterpretation of history was another means of creating nationalism.
Indians began to instill a sense of pride in the nation by viewing Indian history differently.
They highlighted achievements in ancient times when art, architecture, science, mathematics, religion, culture, law, philosophy, crafts, and trade flourished.
They contrasted this glorious past with the history of decline during colonization.
These nationalist histories encouraged readers to take pride in India’s achievements and struggle against British rule.
These efforts to unify people had problems as the glorified past was Hindu, and the celebrated images were drawn from Hindu iconography, causing other communities to feel excluded.
Conclusion
Growing anger against the colonial government brought together various groups and classes into a common struggle for freedom.
The Congress under Gandhi tried to channel grievances into organized movements for independence and forge a national unity.
Diverse groups participated with varied aspirations and expectations.
Freedom from colonial rule had different meanings for different people where Congress continued to resolve differences.
The unity within the movement often broke down and high points of activity were followed by phases of disunity.
What was emerging was a nation with many voices wanting freedom from colonial rule.
Based on the provided notes on Nationalism in India, here are some potential questions that could be asked:
What were the main reasons for the emergence of nationalism in India?
How did the First World War impact the economic and political situation in India?
Explain the concept of Satyagraha as introduced by Mahatma Gandhi.
What were the main provisions of the Rowlatt Act, and why was it opposed?
Discuss the significance of the Jallianwalla Bagh incident.
What was the Khilafat issue, and how did it lead to the Non-Cooperation Movement?
What were the different stages of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
How did the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement affect different social groups?
Why did the Non-Cooperation Movement slow down in the towns?
What was the role of Baba Ramchandra in the peasant movement in Awadh?
How did tribal peasants in the Gudem Hills interpret Mahatma Gandhi's message?
What was the understanding of swaraj among plantation workers in Assam?
Why did Mahatma Gandhi withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement?
What factors led to the Civil Disobedience Movement?
Explain the importance of the Salt March in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
How did rich and poor peasant communities participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement?
What role did the business classes play in the Civil Disobedience Movement?
Discuss the participation of women in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
What were the limits of the Civil Disobedience Movement, particularly concerning the dalits and Muslim political organizations?
How did the image of Bharat Mata contribute to the sense of collective belonging?
In what ways did the reinterpretation of history contribute to Indian nationalism?
Based on the provided notes on Nationalism in India, here are some potential questions that could be asked:
What were the main reasons for the emergence of nationalism in India?
Modern nationalism in Europe led to the formation of nation-states and altered people's understanding of identity and belonging. In India, it was linked to the anti-colonial movement, fostering unity among people who were experiencing colonial oppression differently.
How did the First World War impact the economic and political situation in India?
The war created a new economic and political landscape with increased defense expenditure financed through war loans and rising taxes. Prices doubled, causing hardship, and villages were required to supply soldiers, leading to widespread anger in rural areas. Crop failures and an influenza epidemic further exacerbated the situation.
Explain the concept of Satyagraha as introduced by Mahatma Gandhi.
Satyagraha stresses the power of truth and the search for truth. If the cause is just and the struggle against injustice, physical force is unnecessary. Satyagrahis could win through non-violence by appealing to the oppressor's conscience, persuading people to see the truth without violence.
What were the main provisions of the Rowlatt Act, and why was it opposed?
The Act granted the government power to repress political activities and detain political prisoners for two years without trial. It was opposed because it allowed the government to suppress political dissent and civil liberties.
Discuss the significance of the Jallianwalla Bagh incident.
In this incident, General Dyer ordered his troops to fire on a large crowd, killing hundreds. It led to strikes, clashes with police, and attacks on government buildings, resulting in brutal repression and the calling off of the movement by Gandhi.
What was the Khilafat issue, and how did it lead to the Non-Cooperation Movement?
The Khilafat issue arose from the defeat of Ottoman Turkey in the First World War and rumors of a harsh treaty for the Ottoman emperor (the Khalifa). To defend the Khalifa's powers, a Khilafat Committee was formed, leading to discussions with Gandhi about a united mass action, which Gandhi saw as an opportunity to unite Muslims under a national movement.
What were the different stages of the Non-Cooperation Movement?
The movement would start with the surrender of government-awarded titles and a boycott of civil services, the army, the police, courts, legislative councils, schools, and foreign goods. If the government used repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would be launched.
How did the Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement affect different social groups?
Various social groups participated with their own aspirations, all responding to the call of Swaraj, but the term had different meanings for different people. It affected students, teachers, lawyers, merchants, traders, peasants, and tribals, each with their own motivations and expectations.
Why did the Non-Cooperation Movement slow down in the towns?
The movement in cities slowed down because khadi cloth was more expensive, and alternative Indian institutions were slow to develop. Students and teachers returned to government schools, and lawyers rejoined government courts.
What was the role of Baba Ramchandra in the peasant movement in Awadh?
Baba Ramchandra led peasants in Awadh against talukdars and landlords who demanded high rents and cesses. The movement demanded reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
How did tribal peasants in the Gudem Hills interpret Mahatma Gandhi's message?
Tribal peasants in the Gudem Hills interpreted Mahatma Gandhi's message and swaraj differently, leading to a militant guerrilla movement. They revolted against the colonial government's closure of forest areas and being forced to contribute begar for road building. Alluri Sitaram Raju led them, asserting that India could only be liberated by force.
What was the understanding of swaraj among plantation workers in Assam?
Among plantation workers in Assam, freedom meant the right to move freely and retain links with their villages. Hearing of the Non-Cooperation Movement, thousands of workers defied authorities and headed home, believing Gandhi Raj was coming and they would be given land.
Why did Mahatma Gandhi withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement?
Mahatma Gandhi withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement because it was turning violent and satyagrahis needed training.
What factors led to the Civil Disobedience Movement?
Factors included the worldwide economic depression, the Simon Commission, and the desire for 'Purna Swaraj' (full independence).
Explain the importance of the Salt March in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
Gandhi saw salt as a powerful symbol to unite the nation. The march, covering over 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi, violated the law by manufacturing salt from seawater, marking the start of the Civil Disobedience Movement. It encouraged people to not only refuse cooperation but also to break colonial laws.
How did rich and poor peasant communities participate in the Civil Disobedience Movement?
Rich peasant communities supported the movement due to the trade depression and falling prices, seeing swaraj as a struggle against high revenues. Poorer peasants were interested in lowering the revenue demand and wanted unpaid rent to be remitted, often joining radical movements.
What role did the business classes play in the Civil Disobedience Movement?
Indian merchants and industrialists wanted to expand their businesses and resisted colonial policies that restricted business activities. They supported the Civil Disobedience Movement initially, providing financial assistance and refusing to buy or sell imported goods, seeing swaraj as a time when colonial restrictions would end and trade and industry would flourish.
Discuss the participation of women in the Civil Disobedience Movement.
The Civil Disobedience Movement saw large-scale participation of women, who came out to listen to Gandhi, participated in protest marches, salt manufacturing, and picketing. They saw service to the nation as a sacred duty.
What were the limits of the Civil Disobedience Movement, particularly concerning the dalits and Muslim political organizations?
Dalit participation was limited as many dalit leaders wanted a different political solution, demanding reserved seats in educational institutions and separate electorates. Some Muslim political organizations were lukewarm in their response, feeling alienated from the Congress and concerned about the status of Muslims as a minority.
How did the image of Bharat Mata contribute to the sense of collective belonging?
The image of Bharat Mata, first created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and later painted by Ab