3 Myers' Psychology for AP_

Unit Overview

  • Focus on cognition and related modules including:

    • Studying and Building Memories

    • Memory Storage and Retrieval

    • Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improvement

    • Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity

    • Problem Solving and Making Decisions

Key Themes

  • Duality of human cognition: Capable of both error and brilliance.

  • Historical perspectives on memory and decision-making.

  • Synthesis of human experience shaped by memories and cognitive processes.

Module 31: Studying and Building Memories

Learning Objectives

  • Define memory and the human memory system.

  • Distinguish explicit vs. implicit memories.

  • Describe sensory memory and the capacity of short-term and working memory.

  • Explore effortful processing strategies for memorization.

Memory Definition

  • Memory: Persistence of learning over time via encoding, storage, and retrieval.

    • Without memory, we live in an ongoing present without continuity.

Memory Models

  • Information-Processing Model: Compares memory to computer operations:

    • Encoding: Getting info into the brain.

    • Storage: Retaining that information.

    • Retrieval: Getting information back out.

  • Connectionism: Memories are products of interconnected neural networks.

Types of Memory

  • Explicit (Declarative): Conscious memories we can declare.

    • Formed through effortful processing.

  • Implicit (Nondeclarative): Skills and classically conditioned associations formed automatically.

Sensory Memory

  • Brief storage of sensory information.

    • Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli.

    • Echoic Memory: Auditory stimuli.

Short-term and Working Memory

  • Capacity: Approximately 7±2 items.

  • Working Memory: Active processing of incoming information linking it with long-term memory.

Memory Improvement Strategies

  • Chunking: Organizing information into manageable units.

  • Mnemonics: Using concrete images to enhance memory.

  • Hierarchies: Organizing information into broad concepts.

  • Distributed Practice: Spacing out study sessions for better retention.

Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval

Long-term Memory Capacity

  • Essentially limitless storage; memories are not located in discrete areas.

Key Brain Structures

  • Hippocampus: Processes and stores explicit memories.

  • Cerebellum: Involved in implicit memory formation and procedural learning.

Memory Retrieval

  • Influenced by:

    • External cues (context-dependent memory).

    • Emotional states (state-dependent memory).

    • Order of presentation (serial position effect).

Measuring Memory

  • Measures include recall, recognition, and relearning.

Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improvement

Why We Forget

  • Encoding Failure: Information not noticed or encoded.

  • Storage Decay: Memories fade over time.

  • Retrieval Failure: Difficulty accessing stored information.

Memory Construction

  • Misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia can distort memories.

  • False memories can be created through suggestion or vivid retelling.

Young Children's Eyewitness Reliability

  • Children’s memories can be shaped by suggestive questioning but can recall accurately when neutrally questioned.

Memory Improvement Techniques

  • Rehearse: Repeatedly practice material to enhance retention.

  • Make Material Meaningful: Connect new learning to existing knowledge.

  • Activate Retrieval Cues: Recreate learning contexts to facilitate recall.

  • Sleep: Supports memory consolidation.

Module 34: Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity

Cognition Definition

  • Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concepts

  • Mental groupings of similar objects or events; formed around prototypes.

Creativity Components

  1. Expertise: Well-developed knowledge base.

  2. Imaginative Thinking Skills: Ability to see things in novel ways.

  3. Venturesome Personality: Willingness to take risks.

  4. Intrinsic Motivation: Driven by interest and satisfaction.

  5. Creative Environment: Supportive and stimulating setting for ideas.

Module 35: Problem Solving and Decision Making

Cognitive Strategies

  • Use of algorithms (guaranteed methods) and heuristics (shortcuts).

Obstacles to Problem Solving

  • Confirmation bias, fixation, and mental set may hinder effective solutions.

Decision-Making Influences

  • Intuition can guide decisions.

  • Heuristics: Representativeness and availability can affect judgments.

  • Overconfidence and belief perseverance can compromise rational decision-making.

  • Framing: Presentation of information affects decision outcomes.