Untitled Flashcards Set
Arts and Culture during the Safavid Period
Overview of the Safavid Artistic Period:
The Safavid period, especially during the reign of Shah ‘Abbas, was marked by a significant flourishing of the arts.
Persian luxury items such as illuminated manuscripts, ceramics, textiles, carpets, and rugs were highly admired, especially by travelers to the court, and influenced European and Russian tastes in the Renaissance.
The artistic traditions and the distinct aesthetic of the Safavids became a prominent cultural force, continuing to impact Persia and beyond.
Key Art Forms and Influence:
Book Painting and Manuscripts:
Persian artists excelled in the creation of illuminated manuscripts, with intricate designs and vibrant colors. These manuscripts were not just artistic expressions but also carried deep intellectual and religious significance.
Carpets and Rugs:
Under the patronage of Shah ‘Abbas, carpet weaving flourished, creating colorful and intricately designed pieces with arabesque and floral patterns. Persian carpets became known across the world for their exceptional quality and beauty.
Ceramics:
Persian pottery also reached its peak during this period, renowned for its artistry, craftsmanship, and innovation in design.
Shah Isma‘il and the Influence of Timurid Culture:
In 1510, Shah Isma‘il captured Herat, which gave the Safavids access to the Timurid library and its associated artists and craftsmen.
This access helped preserve and transmit the Timurid artistic traditions, which had a lasting influence on Safavid art.
Bihzad and the Safavid Artistic Legacy:
Shah Isma‘il brought the famous Timurid painter Bihzad to Tabriz in 1522, making him the director of the royal library.
Bihzad played a pivotal role in bridging the traditional Timurid painting style and the emerging Safavid aesthetic, setting a high standard for manuscript illustration during the Safavid era.
The Safavid State in Crisis
Challenges after Shah ‘Abbas:
Following Shah ‘Abbas’s death, four Safavid shahs ruled, but only ‘Abbas II (r. 1642-66) displayed military and administrative competence.
Other monarchs like Shah Safi, Sulaiman, and Shah Sultan Husain failed to secure the empire’s stability, making only marginal contributions to military or political reforms. However, they did support some artistic and architectural patronage.
Decline of Military Power:
Expansion of the Ghulam Army:
Shah ‘Abbas established a standing army of ghulams (slave soldiers), which required the expansion of crown lands to fund them, weakening the traditional Qizilbash governors' power.
This shift led to a decrease in the effectiveness of the Qizilbash forces, weakening the Safavid military and leaving the empire vulnerable to external threats like the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman Success:
In 1638, the Ottomans captured Baghdad and Iraq, further destabilizing the Safavid state.
Political and Administrative Decline:
Seclusion of Princes:
The practice of keeping royal princes in seclusion, away from active governance, led to ineffective leadership. Shah ‘Abbas I had ended the tradition of assigning princes to provincial governorships, which left the provincial administration inefficient and corrupt.
Economic Weakness:
Under Shah Safi, the Safavid silk monopoly, a significant source of revenue, lapsed, weakening the empire’s control over the silver currency supply.
Religious Minorities and Persecution
Persecution Under Shah ‘Abbas II:
Under Shah ‘Abbas II, minority religious communities, particularly the Jewish community and Sufis, faced increasing persecution.
This marked a shift from earlier Safavid tolerance, where religious pragmatism had allowed for coexistence and relative acceptance of diverse beliefs.
Overthrow of the Safavid Dynasty
Afghan Rebellion and Decline:
In 1709, the city of Qandahar, a key Safavid possession, was taken by a rebellious Sunni Afghan group, the Ghalzay (Pashtuns).
In 1721-22, these Afghans mounted an invasion of Iran, captured Isfahan, and brought an end to Safavid rule.
The ensuing period (1722-30) was marked by chaos, with Russian and Ottoman invasions further destabilizing the region.
Islam in Africa
Early Spread of Islam:
Islam spread across North Africa by the mid-seventh century, with traders, clerics, and travelers playing key roles in the dissemination of the religion.
By the eighth and ninth centuries, Islam began to spread along the eastern and western coasts of Africa, influencing the development of urban communities and trade networks.
Bilad al-Sudan (The Land of the Blacks)
Geographical and Economic Context:
Bilad al-Sudan refers to the large savannah region stretching from the northern desert to the forested regions of sub-Saharan Africa.
Important cities in the region, like Timbuktu and Gao, became vital trade centers, facilitating the flow of gold, salt, and other goods across the Sahara Desert.
Spread of Islam through Trade Routes:
Islam traveled along major Saharan trade routes, including those between Morocco and the goldfields of West Africa, and from Libya to Lake Chad.
Although Islam spread along these routes, the forested regions in the southern Sudan only saw significant Islamic influence during the European colonial period.
Patterns of Islamic Expansion in West Africa
Diverse Patterns of Islamization:
First Pattern: Islam was introduced by foreign Muslim residents without gaining significant local support.
Second Pattern: Islam gained local support but had to adapt to and coexist with local customs and practices.
Third Pattern: Islam imposed reform, reshaping local societies according to Islamic teachings.
Ghana:
Ghana was one of the first African kingdoms to come into contact with Islam, with Muslim merchants and scholars forming a significant part of the society.
The Almoravid conquest of Ghana around 1076 led to temporary control of the region, spreading Islam further.
Takrur (on the Senegal River):
The first Muslim king of Takrur converted to Islam, and Islam spread rapidly throughout the region.
Takrur played a significant role in the spread of Islam, although it was often referred to by different names in historical writings.
Mali and Mansa Musa:
Mali was one of the largest and wealthiest empires in West Africa, with Islam being adopted by its rulers.
The famous ruler, Mansa Musa (1312-37), is noted for his pilgrimage to Mecca, which helped promote the spread of Islam and fostered Islamic learning and architecture in Mali.
Songhay:
Songhay, under Sonni ‘Ali, expanded rapidly, including conquests of Timbuktu and Jenne. However, Sonni ‘Ali’s rule was controversial, as he practiced both Islam and traditional beliefs, causing friction with Islamic scholars.
Hausa States:
The Hausa region converted to Islam under the influence of Mali and neighboring regions in the 14th century. Islam spread through nomadic and settled populations.
Islam in East Africa
Spread along the Indian Ocean:
By the 15th century, Muslims controlled much of the trade in the Indian Ocean. Muslim traders and settlers established communities along the East African coast, contributing to the spread of Islam.
Islamic Influence in the Horn of Africa:
Islam spread to Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, and Djibouti via trade routes connecting the Horn to the Arabian Peninsula.
Muslim communities grew along the coast and interior of East Africa, but no large Muslim states emerged during this period.
Swahili Coast and Language:
The Swahili language and culture developed along the East African coast, influenced heavily by Arabic and Islamic traditions.
Portuguese Influence on East Africa
Portuguese Arrival:
Vasco da Gama’s exploration in the late 15th century brought Portuguese influence to the East African coast, where Muslim merchants were already established.
The Portuguese were frustrated by the prominence of Muslims in the region’s trade.