Hedonism and Ethical Theory - John Stuart Mill

Definition: The creed that accepts Utility as the foundation of morals states that actions are right in proportion to their tendency to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the opposite of happiness.
Components:
- Happiness is described as pleasure and absence of pain.
- Unhappiness is identified with pain and deprivation of pleasure.

To clarify the moral standard set by the utilitarian theory, it is important to elaborate on what constitutes pain and pleasure.
The extent of what qualifies as pleasurable or painful remains an open question; however, it does not alter the underlying theory which posits that:
- Pleasure and freedom from pain are the only ends that are desirable.
- All desirable things are either desirable for the inherent pleasure they provide or as means to achieve happiness and prevent pain.

The theory of utilitarianism faces significant opposition as many view the idea that life’s highest end is pleasure as lowly or degrading.
Critics liken followers of hedonism to swine, suggesting that their ethical pursuits lack higher nobility.
- Notable mention of the historical Epicureans, who argue that it is a misconception to equate human pleasures solely with those of animals.
- They contend that human pleasures are more complex and satisfying than animalistic pleasures.

Epicurean Position: It is argued that human beings possess higher faculties than mere animal appetites.
A distinction is made that:
- Human happiness must include the satisfaction of higher faculties.
- Even in the face of suffering, a human does not wish to regress into a lower state of existence.
Debate on Happiness:
- The argument persists that it is preferable to be a dissatisfied human than a satisfied animal (e.g., "better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied").

Utilitarian writers have established that quality in pleasures should be evaluated alongside quantity.
Higher Pleasures:
- Defined as those pleasures which are preferred by experienced individuals regardless of moral obligation to prefer them.
- Example: Many would not trade their intellectual or moral satisfactions for unlimited animalistic pleasures.
Psychological and Practical Factors:
- Individuals may choose lower pleasures due to circumstances or a loss of access to higher pleasures; however, this choice does not imply a preference for the lower ones.
- Critiques suggest that character must be nurtured to maintain appreciation for higher pleasures.

Happiness as the End: According to utilitarian doctrine, happiness is held as the only desirable end.
In evaluating the criterion for what is truly desirable among humans, psychological analysis indicates that:
- Any object desired is ultimately linked to the desire for happiness, suggesting no other ends exist outside of this pursuit.

Although people may desire sentiments like virtue, it is argued that this desire ties back into the overarching goal of achieving happiness.
Virtue is positioned as both an independent good and a means toward human happiness.
- Contrary to other pleasures, virtue is recognized as benefiting individuals and society overall.
Examples include desires for power or wealth—but these often lead to detrimental behaviors affecting societal happiness.

Mill concludes that through psychological assessment and human conduct suggests that:
- The only ultimate sources of desire are linked to happiness or the prevention of pain.
- Will versus Desire: The tension between will (action) and desire (incentive) is critical but acknowledges that ultimately, desires stem from anticipations of pleasure or pain.
Habit plays a significant role in the development of virtuous behavior, reinforcing that behavior must be cultivated and reinforced through the association of pleasure with virtuous actions.
The principle of utility must be critically examined—asserting that happiness remains the definitive end of all human actions.