Extent, Theories, and Factors of Victimization

Measuring Crime

  • Two main official measures in the United States:
    • FBI data.
    • National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS).
  • Self-report data also exists, but lacks national-level undertaking.

Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR)

  • The original method of collecting crime data in the United States. Replaced by NIBRS but historical data still available.
  • Put out by the FBI.
  • In place since the 1930s, allowing for long-term crime trend analysis.
  • Data compiled from police departments reporting crimes encountered (arrests, victimization reports, or discovered crimes).
  • FBI categorizes crimes into:
    • Index crimes (serious crimes).
    • Non-index crimes.
  • UCR primarily focused on index offenses:
    • Violent crimes:
      • Murder and non-negligent manslaughter.
      • Forcible rape.
      • Robbery.
      • Aggravated assault.
    • Property crimes:
      • Burglary.
      • Motor vehicle theft.
      • Larceny.
      • Arson.
Strengths of the UCR
  • Long-standing, systematic way of measuring crime trends.
  • Enables examination of crime changes over nearly 100 years.
  • Provides reliable data for:
    • Murder (consistently reported).
    • Motor vehicle theft (due to insurance requirements).
  • Valuable for examining crime prior to 1970 when other national data was limited.
Weaknesses of the UCR
  • Hierarchy rule: only the most serious offense is counted, underestimating the total amount of crime.
    • Example: In a crime spree involving robbery, kidnapping, sexual assault, and murder, only the murder would be counted.
  • Police department reporting inconsistencies: some departments are more thorough than others.
  • Only counts crimes that come to the attention of the police.
  • Doesn't collect information on crime victims.

National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)

  • As of 2021, NIBRS replaced the UCR as the primary method of reporting crime.
  • More detailed than UCR, includes offender and victim characteristics when known
  • Counts 46 crimes within 22 offense categories, a much broader scope than UCR.
  • Includes drug crimes and public order offenses (less serious crimes).
  • Records all offenses within a single incident, not just the most serious one.
  • Still only captures crime known to the police.

Dark Figure of Crime

  • Represents the amount of crime that goes unreported to the police.
  • Between one-half and two-thirds of crimes remain unreported.
  • Some crimes have higher dark figures than others.
    • Murder and auto theft: low dark figure.
    • Sexual assault and family violence: very high dark figure.
  • Reasons for not reporting:
    • Victims perceive the crime as not serious enough.
    • Belief that nothing will be done.
    • Lack of trust in the criminal justice system.
    • Victim doesn't know a crime took place.
    • Victim is involved in offending.
      • Example: a drug dealer whose stash is stolen may not report it.
    • Victimless crimes (e.g., drug offenses, prostitution, gambling) are often unreported unless police intervene.
    • Fear of retaliation from the offender.

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

  • A national survey representative of the U.S. population over age 12.
  • Collected every six months for three years, then the household rotates out.
  • Asks about victimization experiences (violent crime, property crime, etc.).
  • Estimates are about three times higher than UCR/NIBRS, addressing the dark figure.
  • Has a high completion rate (90%).
  • Two-stage process:
    • Asks if they experienced seven specific crimes: rape or sexual assault, robbery, simple or aggravated assault, personal theft, household burglary, motor vehicle theft, and general theft.
    • If yes, a detailed report of the incidents or where it happened, whether or not it was reported and then the relationship to the offender.
Strengths of NCVS
  • Gets at the dark figure of crime.
  • High completion rate.
Weaknesses of NCVS
  • Relies on people's memories, which can be inaccurate.
  • Series victimization may be undercounted.
  • Excludes:
    • Children age 12 and under.
    • Homeless individuals.
    • Businesses.
  • Doesn't collect data on homicide or victimless crimes.
  • Potential for fabricated reports to please researchers.
  • Telescoping: victims may misremember when incidents occurred.

Self-Report Studies

  • Ask people about their involvement in offending.
  • No systematic study provides yearly estimates like NCVS or NIBRS.
  • Gets at the dark figure of crime.
  • Also gets at victimless crimes (drug use, prostitution, and gambling).
  • Pretty accurate, but not for serious crime.

Data Triangulation

  • The best approach for examining crime statistics is to use more than one source.
  • Helps to fill in the gaps and provide a more comprehensive picture.

Current Crime Trends

  • Latest available data is from 2023, released in 2024.
  • Switch from UCR to NIBRS caused problems, especially for large police departments that had difficulty switching over.
  • NIBRS participation rate was low in 2021 (60-65%), but improved in 2023.
  • Major cities are now included in NIBRS reporting (NYPD and LAPD).
  • Crime has decreased since the peak in the mid-1990s.
  • Violent crime has decreased at a greater rate than property crime.
  • New crimes are emerging, such as computer crimes, fraud, and identity theft.
  • Violent crime (specifically homicide) saw a temporary increase during COVID but is now decreasing.

Typical Victim

  • Generally, the typical victim is a young male of a racial or ethnic minority, living in a disadvantaged urban area, and involved in substance use and minor crimes.

Theories of Victimization

Lifestyle Theory

  • Individuals involved in risky activities with risky people are more likely to be victimized.
  • Examples:
    • Going out at night, partying, going to bars/raves.
    • Offending.
  • Principle of homogeneity: the more frequently one comes into contact with offenders, the more likely they are to be victimized.
  • Risky choices may be out of necessity (e.g., living in a bad neighborhood due to affordability, working night shifts).
  • Overlap between offending and victimization: people involved in offending are also the most likely to be victimized.
  • Gang violence: people involved in gangs are more likely to offend and be victims of homicide.
    • A study in DC in 2020 found 46% of all homicide victims were gang members, and 86% were involved in offending.
  • Victims of offenders share similar characteristics: young, male, Black, and live in a high-crime neighborhood.

Routine Activity Theory

  • Crime and victimization are likely when three elements converge in time and space:
    • Likely offender (motivated offender).
    • Suitable target (attractive target).
    • Absence of a capable guardian.
Elements
  • Likely offender: Someone motivated to commit a particular crime.
    • Motivation can depend on the type of crime.
      • Burglary: teenage kids or early 20s.
      • White-collar crime: people in their 30s, 40s, 50s in professional positions.
  • Suitable target: Something the offender wants.
    • Violent and sexual offenses: another person.
    • Property crime: a house, computer, smartphone, or digital information.
  • Capable guardian: Deters offenders.
    • Police officers and security guards.
    • Dogs (large or small).
    • Security cameras.
    • Fences.
    • Locks.
    • Ring doorbells.
    • Passwords.
    • Motion sensor lights.
Examples
  • Eliza Fletcher Case
    • Abducted and murdered while jogging in Memphis.
    • Random attack by a stranger who was recently released from prison.
    • Motivated offender looking to kidnap someone.
    • Eliza was an early morning jogger, providing a suitable target with a lack of guardians nearby.
  • Amanda Todd Case
    • Victim of cybercrimes (cyberbullying, extortion).
    • Victimized by people all over the world.
    • Committed suicide at age 15 as a result of victimization.
    • Young, vulnerable girl was found to be a suitable target.
    • Lack of guardianship: difficult for parents to monitor kids online.

Hotspots of Crime

  • Crime is not evenly spread over a geographical area; it concentrates in hotspots.
  • Social disorganization can explain hotspots.
    • Neighborhoods with:
      • High rates of households in poverty.
      • Ethnic heterogeneity.
      • High mobility (people moving in and out).
    • More likely to be victimized in a hotspot.
  • Routine activities theory can explain why hotspots exist (lack of guardians, presence of offenders, suitable targets).