From the Belle poque to the World Wars: The Rise of Fascism and Global Conflict

Italy After the Great War: Economic Tensions and Social Unrest

During the period of $1919-1920$, political and social tensions in Italy reached critical levels. Nationalists were profoundly dissatisfied with the conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, viewing the territorial gains as insufficient despite Italy's victory. Simultaneously, severe economic difficulties fueled intense conflicts between different social strata, specifically between peasants and landowners in the countryside, and between industrial workers and factory owners in the cities. These tensions were exacerbated by the difficult reintegration of war veterans into civilian society, the complex process of reconverting wartime weapons factories to civilian production, an ongoing agrarian crisis, and rampant inflation. This volatile environment set the stage for radical political shifts and civilian disobedience.

The "Mutilated Victory" and the Enterprise of Fiume

Following the conclusion of World War I, Italian nationalists expressed their outage over what the poet Gabriele D'Annunzio termed a "vittoria mutilata" (mutilated victory). Although the Kingdom of Italy had secured the territories stipulated in the Treaty of London—including Trentino, Alto Adige, Venezia Giulia, Trieste, and Istria—nationalists demanded the annexation of Fiume in Dalmatia, a city inhabited predominantly by Italians. In September $1919$, D'Annunzio led a group of rebel army units to occupy Fiume, proclaiming its annexation to Italy. This occupation lasted for $15$ months and placed the Italian government in a precarious position, as it was an illegitimate action that defied parliament and threatened relations with Yugoslavia. The crisis was eventually resolved on November $12, 1920$, when Italy signed the Treaty of Rapallo with Yugoslavia, renouncing claims to Dalmatia and recognizing Fiume's independence. When D'Annunzio refused to vacate, the government of Giovanni Giolitti dispatched the military, leading to the rebels' surrender on December $31, 1920$. This intervention further fueled nationalist resentment.

The Biennio Rosso and the Rise of Mass Parties

The years $1919-1920$ became known as the "biennio rosso" (two red years) because of the wave of factory occupations and agrarian riots led by socialists. These activists waved red flags, inspired by the Russian Revolution of $1917$, which they viewed as a model for achieving social justice. These movements were strengthened by the introduction of universal suffrage, which allowed for the growth of massive political parties. This period of agitation deeply alarmed the industrial high bourgeoisie, large landowners, and the middle class (including professionals and employees). They feared that the government's neutral stance toward the protests would lead to a socialist revolution that would destroy their interests. This collective fear became a primary driver for the eventual acceptance of more authoritarian solutions to restore order.

Fragmentations in the Socialist Movement and the Founding of the PCI

In the political elections of November $1919$, the Socialist Party emerged as the most voted party in Italy. However, the party was internally divided between a moderate wing and a radical wing. This tension culminated in $1921$ during the Congress of Livorno, where the radical faction split to form the Partito Comunista d'Italia (PCI). Led by figures such as Amadeo Bordiga, Antonio Gramsci, and Palmiro Togliatti, the PCI adopted the ideology of Lenin, aiming to overthrow bourgeois power and establish a dictatorship of the proletariat. Despite their revolutionary goals, their immediate chances were slim as the fervor of the "biennio rosso" was fading, and their membership was too limited to lead a successful national insurrection at that time.

Don Luigi Sturzo and the Italian Popular Party (PPI)

Founded in $1919$ by the priest Don Luigi Sturzo, the Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI) became the second most voted party after the Socialists. The PPI was a secular but Catholic-inspired party that sought to represent various social classes. Its platform included a vast agrarian reform to combat "latifondismo" (large uncultivated estates used only for pasture), the extension of voting rights to women in recognition of their evolving social roles, and the protection of workers through labor unions. In foreign policy, they advocated for a stronger Italian role in the League of Nations and universal disarmament. Because it opposed the excessive power of both industrialists and Bolshevik-style socialism, the PPI gained significant success among the segments of society that shared Catholic values.

The Origins and Ideology of Fascism

In $1919$, Benito Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, a movement that would evolve into the Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF) in $1921$. The term "fascism" derives from the "fasci littori," an ancient Roman symbol of power consisting of a bundle of wooden rods tied with leather straps around an axe. This symbol represented the power of Roman magistrates (lictors) to punish criminals through flogging (the rods) or the death penalty (the axe). Mussolini chose this emblem to signify unity, power, and a direct connection to Italy's glorious Roman past. Early fascism presented itself as a nationalist and revolutionary movement. Its initial radical program proposed women's suffrage, the abolition of the Senate and noble titles, the confiscation of church property, and economic compensation for war veterans. This platform appealed to ex-interventionists, ex-socialists, and those embittered by the "mutilated victory."

The Rise of the Blackshirts and Squadrismo

The fascist movement was organized militarily into "squadre d'azione" (action squads), popularly known as Blackshirts or "squadracce." These groups were led by local chiefs called "ras" and wore black shirts as a tribute to the "Arditi," a group of elite Italian commandos from World War I. During the "biennio rosso," these squads carried out violent expeditions against socialists and liberals, using clubs (manganelli) and forcing victims to ingest large quantities of castor oil, which caused agonizing intestinal pain and diarrhea. By $1921$, Mussolini moderated the party's program to gain the support of industrialists, landowners, and Catholics. By the time it became the PNF in $1921$, the party boasted over $200,000$ members and had successfully entered parliament.

The March on Rome and the Seizure of Power

Following the inconclusive elections of $1921$ and the resignation of Giolitti, Mussolini maneuvered to take power. While negotiating with liberals and reassuring the King by dropping the most radical parts of his program, his squads continued their violence. In October $1922$, during a large party rally in Naples, the fascists organized the "March on Rome." On October $28, 1922$, approximately $25,000$ armed fascists converged on the capital. Prime Minister Luigi Facta proposed a state of siege to allow the army to intervene, but King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the order. Consequently, the fascists entered Rome unopposed. On October $30, 1922$, the King invited Mussolini to form a new government, thereby legitimizing the fascist ascent within the state's existing institutions. This transition was made possible by the weakness of the liberals, the support of the bourgeoisie and sectors of the military, and a general public desire for an "order-restorer."

From Government to Dictatorship: The Matteotti Crisis

Between $1922$ and $1924$, Mussolini initially appeared to respect the parliamentary regime while simultaneously creating new party-controlled organs like the Gran Consiglio del Fascismo (Great Council of Fascism) and the Milizia Volontaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale (MVSN). In July $1923$, he passed a new electoral law (the Acerbo Law) that granted a large "majority premium" of two-thirds of the seats to the party with the most votes. In the $1924$ elections, the fascists used widespread intimidation and fraud to secure $65.003125\%$ of the vote. On May $30, 1924$, socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti denounced these frauds in parliament. Ten days later, he was kidnapped and stabbed to death by fascist hitmen. In protest, the opposition parties abandoned parliament in what was called the "Aventine Secession." On January $3, 1925$, Mussolini took full responsibility for the murder and threatened to use force against all opponents, marking the definitive end of the liberal state and the start of the dictatorship.

The Leggi Fascistissime and the Totalitarian State

Between $1925$ and $1926$, the government introduced the "leggi fascistissime" (most fascist laws), which dismantled democratic institutions. Key changes included replacing the President of the Council with the "Primi Ministro Segretario di Stato," who was responsible only to the King; making Mussolini the head of government with the power to decide which laws parliament could discuss; and elevating the Gran Consiglio del Fascismo to the state's supreme organ. All opposition parties and organizations were dissolved, leaving the PNF as the sole legal party. Elected mayors were replaced by government-appointed "podest" and independent unions were replaced by corporate associations controlled by the state. The death penalty was reintroduced for crimes against the state, judged by a newly created Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State. In $1928$, a new law removed direct elections, replacing them with a plebiscite on a single list of names. In the first plebiscite on March $24, 1929$, approximately $89.6\%$ of the male electorate voted in favor of the list.

The Cult of the Duce and the Imperfect Dictatorship

Under the regime, Mussolini took the title of "Duce" (from the Latin "dux," meaning leader). While the regime controlled many aspects of life, historians often call it an "imperfect dictatorship" because Mussolini did not have absolute control; the King remained the formal head of state and partially controlled the security forces. To maintain control, the regime used the OVRA (Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Anti-Fascism) to arrest and exile dissenters. Notable victims included the Rosselli brothers, assassinated in France, and Antonio Gramsci, who died after a long imprisonment during which he wrote the "Prison Notebooks." Parallel to repression, the regime deployed massive propaganda via the Istituto Luce (cinematographic newsreels), Cinecitt (founded in $1937$), and the radio. The EIAR (Ente Italiano Audizioni Radiofoniche) held a monopoly on broadcasts, and the Ente Radio Rurale promoted the medium in the countryside to ensure the "moral and cultural elevation" of rural populations.

Economic Policy: Dirigismo, Protectionism, and the Battle of the Grain

In $1925$, Finance Minister Giuseppe Volpi adopted a strategy of "dirigismo" (state direction) and protectionism. To increase agricultural self-sufficiency, Mussolini launched the "battaglia del grano" (Battle of the Grain), using advanced techniques to raise cereal production while increasing tariffs on foreign agricultural products. The state supported large industrial groups like FIAT, Pirelli, and Edison. To combat the effects of the $1929$ financial crisis and unemployment, the regime initiated major public works, including the construction of stations, courthouses, and the drainage of the Pontine Marshes, which led to the founding of cities like Latina and Sabaudia. Major public entities were established: the IMI (Istituto Mobiliare Italiano) to replace banks in funding industry, the IRI (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale) to rescue failing companies, and AGIP for the energy sector. Welfare was expanded through insurance for illness and a new pension system, contributing to a period of increased consensus for the regime.

The Lateran Pacts and the Recognition of the Vatican

Recognizing the importance of the Catholic Church in a nation where $99\%$ of the population was Catholic, Mussolini negotiated the Lateran Pacts, signed on February $11, 1929$. These agreements resolved the conflict that had existed since the Unification of Italy in $1870$. The Pope recognized Rome as the capital of Italy, while Italy recognized the sovereignty of the Pope over the new Vatican City State. Italy also agreed to pay a large financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States. A concordat recognized Catholicism as the sole state religion. These pacts consolidated Mussolini's support among Catholics, framing him as the "man of providence" who had reconciled Church and State.

Fascist Imperialism: Libya and the Invasion of Ethiopia

In the $1920 ext{s}$ and $1930 ext{s}$, Italy sought to establish itself as a colonial power. Between $1923$ and $1931$, Mussolini suppressed resistance in Libya with extreme brutality, including the use of illegal poison gases like mustard gas (iprite). In October $1935$, Mussolini attacked Ethiopia without a formal declaration of war to avenge the $1896$ defeat at Adwa and secure a "posto al sole" (place in the sun). He sent an army of over $200,000$ men, supported by $100,000$ Ascari (Eritrean soldiers). Despite the use of over $300 ext{ tonnes}$ of poison gas and the slaughter of civilians, the resistance was fierce. On May $9, 1936$, Mussolini proclaimed the birth of the Italian Empire, reuniting Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Somalia into Italian East Africa. While the League of Nations imposed economic sanctions, they were largely ineffective as they excluded essential raw materials and did not bind non-members like the United States or Germany. Mussolini responded by declaring "autarchia" (autarchy), an attempt at economic self-sufficiency that promoted synthetic products like Lanital (milk-based wool) and Cuoital (artificial leather), as well as coffee substitutes like chicory.

The Path to World War II and the Alliances with Hitler

Adolf Hitler, having established a dictatorship in Germany, sought "Lebensraum" (living space) for a "Greater Germany." He ignored the Treaty of Versailles, rearmed the country, and re-introduced mandatory military service. In March $1938$, he executed the "Anschluss" (annexation) of Austria. Britain and France, led by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, adopted a policy of "appeasement," hoping that concessions would preserve peace. However, after annexing the Sudetenland and subsequently invading all of Czechoslovakia (Bohemia and Moravia), Hitler's ambitions became clear. In May $1939$, Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel, a formal military alliance. This was followed on August $23, 1939$, by the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty between Germany and the USSR that secretly planned to divide Poland. On September $1, 1939$, Germany invaded Poland, prompting Britain and France to declare war on September $3$.

Italian Involvement and the Expansion of the Global Conflict

Mussolini initially declared non-belligerence because the Italian army was unprepared. However, seeing German successes, such as the fall of Paris in June $1940$ and the evacuation of Allied troops at Dunkirk, he famously stated he needed "a few thousand dead" to sit at the peace table. Italy entered the war on June $10, 1940$. Italy's military performance was disastrous: the invasion of Greece from Albania in $1940$ required German rescue, and by $1941$, the British had retaken Eritrea and Somalia. On June $22, 1941$, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa against the USSR with $3,800,000$ men, including nearly $300,000$ Italians in the ARMIR (Italian Army in Russia). The campaign resulted in a catastrophic retreat during the Russian winter, where $100,000$ Italians died or were captured. On December $7, 1941$, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into the war and making it a truly global conflict.

The Turn of the Tide: Stalingrad and El Alamein

By $1942$, the Allies began to regain ground. In the USSR, the Battle of Stalingrad ($1942-1943$) resulted in a massive Axis defeat with over $1,000,000$ men lost. In the Pacific, the U.S. Navy won the Battle of Midway, crippling the Japanese fleet. In North Africa, British General Montgomery defeated Rommel’s forces at El Alamein in Egypt. By May $1943$, Axis forces were driven out of Africa entirely, with Anglo-American troops landing in Morocco and Algeria. Technological advancements also played a role; British scientists perfected Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging) and cracked German secret messages using the Enigma machine, giving the Allies a decisive edge in intelligence and defense against the Luftwaffe's bombings (The Battle of Britain).