Comprehensive Study Notes on The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947

The Making of the National Movement: 1870s–1947

Overview of Previous Chapters

  • The discussion on the British conquest:
    • Conquest of territories and takeover of kingdoms.
    • Introduction of new laws and administrative institutions.
    • Changes affecting peasants and tribals.
    • Educational reforms in the nineteenth century.
    • Debates on women’s condition.
    • Challenges to the caste system.
    • Social and religious reform movements.
    • The Revolt of 1857 and its outcomes.
    • Decline of traditional crafts and industrial growth.

Discontent with British Rule

  • The content leads to a crucial question:
    • What is India and who does it belong to?
  • Emergence of consciousness that India belonged to all its people, irrespective of social divisions (class, caste, creed).

Political Associations and National Consciousness

  • Formation of political associations post-1850.
  • Key associations formed in the 1870s and 1880s:
    • Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
    • Indian Association.
    • Madras Mahajan Sabha.
    • Bombay Presidency Association.
    • Indian National Congress (INC) established in December 1885 with 72 delegates meeting in Bombay.
    • Leadership included individuals like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, and others.
    • Objective: To advocate sovereignty and rights for the Indian populace and the idea of self-governance.

Intensified Dissatisfaction in the 1870s and 1880s

  • Laws that increased dissatisfaction include:
    • Arms Act (1878): Prohibited Indians from possessing arms, intensifying feelings of resentment.
    • Vernacular Press Act (1878): Aimed to curb criticism against the government by allowing suppression of newspapers.
    • Ilbert Bill Controversy (1883): Aimed at equal trial for British and Indian judges; retraction led to increased racial tension and outrage among Indians.
Definitions
  • Sovereign: The capacity to act independently without external interference.

Formation of the Indian National Congress

  • Growing demand for a pan-Indian organization saw the establishment of the INC aiming to represent all communities of India, reflecting aspirations for representation in governance.
  • The early Congress was characterized as “moderate” in objectives, seeking reforms instead of immediate independence.
  • Economic Consequences under British Rule:
    • Increase in land revenue impoverished peasants and zamindars.
    • Decline in food availability due to grain exports to Europe.
  • Calls for economic reforms included demands for salary reductions for military and increased irrigation funds.

Rise of Radical Politics by the 1890s

  • Emergence of radical leaders challenging the moderate approach:
    • Leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak called for self-reliance and mass mobilization towards swaraj (self-rule).
  • Radical views questioned the inefficacy of mere petitions, advocating instead for direct action against British policies.
  • Freedom is my birthright: A famous slogan advocating for the rightful claim of freedom.

The Swadeshi Movement (1905)

  • Context of Bengal’s partition by Viceroy Curzon:
    • Partition resulted in widespread unrest and the Swadeshi movement, advocating for Indian nationalism and self-sufficiency.
    • Focus on self-help and boycotting British goods and institutions emerged as a key mechanism for national resistance.

Impact of the First World War (1914-1918)

  • Economic and political upheaval during the war led to increased dissatisfaction with British rule as taxes soared, yet businesses profited.
  • Expansion of military recruitment strained local populations leading to a larger understanding of global colonial exploitation.
Emergence of Mahatma Gandhi
  • Arrival in India (1915) and early interventions in local struggles highlighted his commitment to mass mobilization and grassroots activism.
  • Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): The first significant pan-Indian effort against oppressive laws that curtailed freedoms.
    • The Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar exemplified the brutal repression faced during this period.

The Khilafat Movement and Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

  • Collaboration between Hindus and Muslims against the British, calling for the restoration of Kalipha and opposition to Jallianwala atrocities.
    • The rise of mass protests, boycotts, and the surrendering of British titles represented a unified front against colonial rule.

People’s Initiatives and Local Resistance

  • Local movements drew upon key grievances, with support from varied social classes including peasants, tribal communities, and women who actively participated in these protests.
  • Examples of localized agitation include land revenue protests, picketing of liquor shops, and boundary-pushing against forest laws.

Shifts in Political Landscape After 1922

  • Internal disputes within the INC led to a shift in strategies, emphasizing constructive work in rural areas.
  • Revolutionary nationalists advocated for confrontation with British rule and sought to build a workers' and peasants' agenda.
    • Notable revolutionary activities included the activities of Bhagat Singh and the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).
  • Simon Commission (1927): Its rejection caused public outrage, symbolizing the discontent with lack of Indian representation.

Path to Independence: 1940 to Partition

  • The late 1930s saw the Muslim League solidifying its identity as a representative of Muslims, leading to increasing tensions with the INC.
  • The demand for Pakistan arose amidst fears of Muslim marginalization in a Hindu-majority India, culminating in riots and communal discord.
Understanding the Partition
  • Partition resulted in mass violence, dislocation, and the loss of countless lives as millions were forced to migrate, forever altering the fabric of Indian society.