Biology 2402: Anatomy and Physiology Overview
BIOLOGY 2402 Learning Outcomes – Unit 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology – Chapter 1
1. Basic Definitions
Characteristics of Life: All living organisms exhibit specific characteristics including growth, reproduction, metabolism, responsiveness to stimuli, homeostasis, and cellular organization.
Processes Carried Out by Living Organisms: Essential processes include intake of nutrients, metabolism, waste removal, and response to environmental changes.
Anatomy: The study of the structure and organization of living organisms.
Physiology: The study of the function of living organisms and their parts.
Types of Anatomy:
Gross Anatomy: Study of structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., organs).
Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures at the cellular level (e.g., histology, cytology).
Types of Physiology:
Cell Physiology: Study of cell functions.
Systemic Physiology: Study of organ systems, such as cardiovascular physiology.
2. Levels of Organization
Hierarchical Structure from simplest to most complex:
Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules.
Cellular Level: Basic unit of life.
Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.
Organ Level: Structures made of two or more different types of tissues.
Organ System Level: Group of organs that work together to perform complex functions.
Organism Level: The human body as a whole.
3. Survey of Body Systems
List of Organ Systems:
Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails - protects the body.
Skeletal System: Bones, cartilages - supports body, facilitates movement.
Muscular System: Skeletal muscles - movement, posture, heat production.
Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves - controls body functions through electrical signals.
Endocrine System: Glands (e.g., thyroid, adrenal) - regulates body functions through hormones.
Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels - transports nutrients, gases, and wastes.
Lymphatic/Immune System: Lymph nodes, spleen - defends against pathogens.
Respiratory System: Lungs, trachea - provides oxygen, removes carbon dioxide.
Digestive System: Stomach, intestines - processes food, absorbs nutrients.
Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder - removes wastes, regulates water balance.
Reproductive System: Gonads, uterus - produces offspring.
4. Anatomical Position, Directional and Regional Terms
Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.
Right and Left in Anatomical Reference: Refers to the body’s right and left, not the observer's.
Major Directional Terms:
Superior: Above or higher.
Inferior: Below or lower.
Anterior: Front of the body.
Posterior: Back of the body.
Medial: Toward the midline.
Lateral: Away from the midline.
Proximal: Closer to the trunk.
Distal: Farther from the trunk.
Regional Terminology: Describes specific areas (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic).
5. Body Planes and Sections
Anatomic Planes:
Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right sections.
Coronal (Frontal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior sections.
Oblique Plane: Passes through the body at an angle.
6. Body Cavities and Regions
Body Cavities:
Dorsal Cavity: Contains the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord).
Ventral Cavity: Contains thoracic cavity (lungs, heart) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive organs, reproductive organs).
Major Anatomical Regions:
Abdominal Region: Stomach, intestines.
Pelvic Region: Bladder, reproductive organs.
Abdominopelvic Quadrants:
Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ).
Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ).
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ).
Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ).
Abdominopelvic Regions:
Right Hypochondriac Region.
Epigastric Region.
Left Hypochondriac Region.
Right Lumbar Region.
Umbilical Region.
Left Lumbar Region.
Right Iliac Region.
Hypogastric (Pubic) Region.
Left Iliac Region.
7. Core Principles of Anatomy and Physiology
Homeostasis: The ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changing external conditions.
Physiological Variables: Examples include body temperature, pH levels, and glucose concentration.
Key Terms Related to Homeostasis:
Setpoint: The optimal value for a variable.
Variable: The factor being regulated.
Receptor (Sensor): Detects changes in variables.
Effector (Target): Responds to changes to restore balance.
Control (Integrating) Center: Processes input from receptors and determines the response.
Response Pathway Steps:
Stimulus.
Receptors detect change.
Control center processes information.
Effectors enact response.
Negative Feedback Mechanism Loop Steps:
Stimulus.
Receptor detects change.
Control center assesses change.
Effector activates to counteract change.
Response restores homeostasis.
Comparison of Feedback Mechanisms:
Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect of the stimulus (e.g., temperature regulation).
Positive Feedback: Enhances the effect of the stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).
Relationship of Structure and Function: The shape of a structure directly relates to its function in biological systems.
Gradient: Difference in concentration or charge across a distance; types include concentration gradients, electrical gradients, and pressure gradients that drive physiological processes.
Cell Communication: Essential for coordination and function in multicellular organisms through mechanisms like signalling molecules and receptors.
Chemistry – Chapter 2
1. Atoms and Molecules
Definitions:
Atoms: The smallest unit of an element, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Elements: Pure substances made of only one type of atom.
Molecules: Two or more atoms bonded together.
Compounds: Molecules that contain at least two different elements.
Subatomic Particles:
Electrons: Negatively charged, low mass, found in electron clouds surrounding the nucleus.
Protons: Positively charged, found in the nucleus, determines atomic identity.
Neutrons: No charge, found in the nucleus, contribute to atomic mass.
Atomic Number: The number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
Mass Number: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Atomic Weight: Average mass of an element’s isotopes.
Major Elements in the Human Body: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Ion: An atom with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of electrons.
Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Radioisotope: Unstable isotopes that decay over time, releasing radiation.
Chemical Stability: Atoms with a complete valence shell are chemically stable and less likely to form chemical bonds.
2. Chemical Bonding
Types of Chemical Bonds:
Covalent Bonds: Atoms sharing electrons (e.g., H₂O).
Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating charged ions that attract (e.g., NaCl).
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., between water molecules).
Nonpolar Covalent vs. Polar Covalent Bonds:
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: Electrons shared equally, resulting in no charge difference (e.g., CH₄).
Polar Covalent Bonds: Electrons shared unequally, resulting in a partial charge (e.g., H₂O).
Bond Strength Order: Ionic > Polar Covalent > Nonpolar Covalent > Hydrogen bonds.
Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic:
Hydrophilic Molecules: Interact well with water (e.g., salts).
Hydrophobic Molecules: Do not interact well with water (e.g., oils).
3. Inorganic Compounds and Solutions
Properties of Water:
Universal solvent, high heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, and cohesion.
Solution: A homogeneous mixture composed of solute and solvent.
Solute: Substance dissolved in the solvent.
Solvent: The medium in which solutes are dissolved.
Colloid: A mixture where fine particles are suspended in a medium (e.g., milk).
Suspension: A mixture where larger particles are dispersed but will settle (e.g., blood).
Emulsion: A mixture of two immiscible liquids (e.g., oil and water).
pH Scale: Ranges from 0 to 14, measuring the acidity or basicity of a solution:
Acidic Solutions: pH < 7.
Neutral Solutions: pH = 7.
Alkaline (Basic) Solutions: pH > 7.
Properties of Acids and Bases:
Acids: Release H+ ions in solution.
Bases: Accept H+ ions or release OH- ions in solution.
Buffer: A solution that resists changes in pH by neutralizing small amounts of acids or bases.
4. Organic Compounds
Organic Molecule: Contains carbon and usually hydrogen.
Monomers and Polymers: Monomers are building blocks that combine to form polymers (e.g., glucose is a monomer of starch).
Reactions:
Dehydration Synthesis: Process of joining two molecules by removing a water molecule (e.g., forming disaccharides).
Hydrolysis: Process of breaking down a molecule by adding water (e.g., breaking polysaccharides into monomers).
Molecular Structure of Biomolecules:
Carbohydrates: Cx(H2O)y, provide energy (e.g., glucose).
Proteins: Composed of amino acids, essential for body functions (e.g., enzymes).
Lipids: Hydrophobic compounds, used for long-term energy storage (e.g., fats).
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA, responsible for storage and transfer of genetic information.
Building Blocks:
Carbohydrates: Simple sugars (monosaccharides).
Proteins: Amino acids (20 different types).
Lipids: Fatty acids and glycerol.
Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides (composed of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen base).
Protein Structure Levels:
Primary: Sequence of amino acids.
Secondary: Alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets.
Tertiary: 3D folding of a single polypeptide.
Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides forming a functional protein.
5. Energy and Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reaction: The process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.
Types of Chemical Reactions:
Synthesis: Two or more substances combine (A + B → AB).
Decomposition: A substance breaks down (AB → A + B).
Exchange: Atoms or molecules exchange (AB + CD → AC + BD).
Factors Influencing Reaction Rates:
Concentration, temperature, surface area, and presence of catalysts.
Enzyme: A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed.
Properties of Enzymes: Specificity, efficiency, and regulatory effects.
Importance: Enzymes ensure reactions occur at biologically feasible temperatures and rates.
6. Energy Transfer Using ATP
Role of ATP: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
ATP Synthesis and Energy Release:
Generalized Reaction: ATP + H2O ⇌ ADP + Pi + Energy.
Mechanism: When ATP breaks down, energy is released for cellular activities.
The Cell – Chapter 3
1. General Organization of a Cell
Three Main Parts of a Cell:
Plasma (Cell) Membrane: Surrounds the cell, controlling what enters and exits.
Cytoplasm: The intracellular fluid containing organelles.
Nucleus: The control center of the cell, containing DNA.
Intracellular Fluid (Cytosol): The fluid component within the cytoplasm, excluding organelles.
Extracellular Fluid: The fluid outside of cells that provides a medium for transport.
Difference between Cytoplasm and Cytosol: Cytoplasm includes all contents within the plasma membrane, excluding the nucleus, while cytosol is just the fluid part.
2. Cellular Membrane Structure and Function
Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the plasma membrane as a flexible structure with various proteins embedded in or attached to a bilayer of phospholipids.
Structure of Plasma Membrane:
Phospholipids: Form the lipid bilayer with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
Proteins: Integral (span membrane) or peripheral (on surface).
Carbohydrates: Attached to proteins or lipids, involved in cell recognition and signaling.
Functions of Plasma Membrane Proteins:
Structural Proteins: Provide support and shape.
Receptor Proteins: Bind to signaling molecules and initiate cellular responses.
Channel Proteins: Allow specific substances to enter or exit the cell.
3. Mechanisms for Movement of Materials Across Plasma (Cell) Membranes
Simple Diffusion: Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration without energy (e.g., oxygen).
Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels without energy (e.g., glucose).
Active Transport: Movement against a concentration gradient requiring energy (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).
Osmosis: The diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration.
Osmolarity vs. Tonicity:
Osmolarity: Total concentration of solute particles in a solution.
Tonicity: The ability of a solution to influence the shape of a cell by altering its internal water volume.
Effects of Solutions on Cells:
Hypertonic Solutions: Cause cells to shrink as water leaves.
Isotonic Solutions: No net movement of water, cells remain the same size.
Hypotonic Solutions: Cause cells to swell and possibly burst as water enters.
Types of Vesicular Transport:
Exocytosis: Release of substances from a cell.
Endocytosis: Uptake of substances into a cell.
Phagocytosis: "Cell eating" of large particles.
Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking" of liquids.
4. Organelles
Organelle: Specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function.
Types of Organelles:
Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Smooth ER synthesizes lipids; Rough ER makes proteins.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste.
Peroxisomes: Break down fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide.
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
Endomembrane System Interaction: Organelles like ER, Golgi apparatus, and vesicles work together to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids.
Cytoskeleton: Composed of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, supporting cell shape and movement.
Centrioles: Aid in cell division, help organize microtubules.
Cilia: Short, hair-like structures aiding in movement or fluid movement.
Flagella: Long, whip-like structures for cell motility.
Nucleus Structure and Function:
Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA), organized as chromatin.
Chromatin and Chromosomes: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes during cell division.
Nucleolus: Produces ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and assembles ribosome subunits.
5. Protein Synthesis
Genetic Code: The sequence of nucleotides in DNA that encodes the information for protein synthesis.
Transcription: The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.
Translation: The process of decoding mRNA into a polypeptide chain, forming a protein.
Roles in Protein Synthesis:
mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosome.
tRNA (transfer RNA): Brings amino acids to the ribosome for protein assembly.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Component of ribosomes, facilitates translation.
6. Cell Cycle
Phases of the Cell Cycle:
G1 Phase: Cell growth and preparation for DNA replication.
S Phase: Synthesis phase where DNA is replicated.
G2 Phase: Further growth and preparation for mitosis.
M Phase (Mitosis): Division of the nucleus followed by cytoplasm division (cytokinesis).
DNA Replication: Occurs during S phase, involving unwinding of DNA and complementary base pairing to create two identical DNA molecules.
Mitosis Phases:
Prophase: Chromatin condenses, nuclear envelope breaks down.
Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell equator.
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
Telophase: Nuclear envelope re-forms, chromosomes de-condense.
Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.