QoW #1
Forest ecologists are attempting to introduce strands of sugar maple trees to New Hampshire, as their usual environment of Vermont is under attack by invasive insects. However, the sugar maples are suffering in New Hampshire, with stunted growth compared to their counterparts in Vermont. What would be the best strategy these ecologists could use to improve the conditions for sugar maple stands?
Implement more regimented watering protocols to offset the naturally drier NH soil.
Add acidic compounds to the soil to offset the naturally more alkaline NH soil.
Provide more fertilizer to offset the naturally low concentrations of nutrients and minerals in NH soil.
Deposit more soil into the planting areas to offset the naturally shallow layers of NH soil.
Which of the following is NOT true of the convection currents in Earth's mantle?
Convection is a uniform process within the mantle that moves with a predictable cycle
Convection currents are responsible for the movement of tectonic plates
The creation of Earth’s continental crust is dependent on convection currents
Convection currents explain the discrepancy between Kelvin’s cooling model and the age of the Earth.
Elements that make up Earth and other planets were formed in ancient stars. Which of the following describes how these elements became part of our solar system and planet?
The Big Bang created all the elements, which directly formed Earth and other planets.
The collapse of a gas giant created our solar system and provided the elements for Earth's formation.
Through nuclear fusion, the sun created all elements found in our solar system and the Earth.
A huge supernova explosion from stars scattered elements into space and the solar nebula where Earth formed.
What is a leading theory of the origin of heavy metals on Earth’s surface?
During the cooling of the Earth, convection processes carried many elements, including heavy metals, throughout the Earth’s layers. Now, we can use machinery to access and utilize the metals from the depths of the Earth.
Earth’s original heavy metals sank to the core during the planet’s formation. About 4 billion years ago, large asteroids with heavy metals impacted the Earth in the Late Heavy Bombardment and redistributed these elements to a layer accessible to modern life.
After a large mass, Theia, impacted the moon, debris from both bodies entered the Earth’s atmosphere. This material became integrated with Earth’s mantle to provide heavy metals.
Although heavy metals sank to deeper layers of the Earth for a period of time, volcanic activity and continental rifts allowed magma bearing heavy metals to return to the surface intermittently over billions of years.
Which of the following was not discussed or is not true regarding creation stories?
Western philosophers were the first, or most well known, to question not only the origins of the Earth and of life, but also the age of the Earth.
Creation stories are substitutes for or primitive versions of scientific explanations for the origins of the Earth.
Creation stories can help humans understand the world we exist in and explain observations about the natural world.
Creation stories often reflect their society’s values and beliefs.
I am trying to identify a rock as either basalt or granite. Which piece of information would be LEAST helpful in making this identification?
To know if the region has previously or is currently experiencing significant rifting.
To know if the rock is frequently exposed to rain and water.
A description of the layering and textures of the rock.
A black and white sketch of the various/relative colors of the rock.
Despite Earth beginning to slowly lower in its temperature, it was still subject to unprecedented heat from volcanic eruptions. The eruptions led to the release of the following gases: ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide, water vapor and sulfur dioxide, thus forming the Earth's atmospheres. Furthermore, once Earth had cooled itself to below 100 degrees Celsius, which of the following took place:
The cooling of the Earth prompted the creation of multi-celled organisms (ie. Dinosaurs) during the Mesozoic Era.
The cooling of the Earth prompted the creation of only singled celled organisms during Cenozoic Era.
The cooling of the Earth prompted an extreme and uncontrollable event that froze the Earth’s oceans/land surfaces, which is known as the era of “Snowball Earth.”
The cooling of the Earth led to the creation of the Earth’s oceans and single celled life forms (ie. Algae and bacteria).
Suppose the rifting of Pangea during the Mesozoic Era had continued in what is now considered the northeastern United States instead of resulting in a failed rift. How would the geological development of the Connecticut River Basin and the surrounding region differ?
The prolonged rifting would have created a massive canyon, similar to the Grand Canyon in Arizona.
The rifting would have led to the formation of an ocean basin instead of the Connecticut River Valley.
The region would have experienced mountain building as continental plates collided, forming a new mountain range.
The region would have had much more basalt rock due to the lack of rapidly cooling magma.
Why does bedrock with higher weather-ability support agricultural economies?
The more weather-able the bedrock, the easier it is for root systems to grow, expand, and flourish.
The weather-ability of the bedrock impacts how much water moves through the watershed, allowing for higher weatherable bedrock to have less runoff.
Bedrock that is more weather-able supports soil porosity, allowing for aerated soil that supports agriculture.
Bedrock that weathers easier leads to more nutrient release into the soil, allowing for fertile soil for agriculture.
Briefly in class on Monday we discussed how Vermont has been hit with millions of dollars of losses from intense flash floods. Considering what we learned in class this week, which of the following doesn't make sense?
Vermont's flooding can be more intense than other state's such as NH because the flash floods weather Vermont's bedrock more easily
Vermont receives more rain than NH accounting for Vermont having more intense flooding than NH
Vermont's flooding is more high stakes because Vermont's land has more value than NH's land
Vermont flooding can be tougher on the state's infrastructure because it is more rural and doesn't have any big cities compared to New Hampshire
What were the approximate percentage of elements in the Earth's atmosphere during its early formation?
80% Nitrogen, 20% Oxygen, 0.5% Carbon Dioxide, 0.5% Water Vapor
70% Oxygen, 20% Nitrogen, 5% Carbon Dioxide, 5% Water Vapor
50% Nitrogen, 30% Carbon Dioxide, 15% Oxygen, 5% Water Vapor
90% Carbon Dioxide, 5% Nitrogen, 5% Water Vapor, 0% Oxygen
Which of the following is the BEST explanation for the difference between the prevailing industries in VT and NH – through the lens of cultural geology.
The formation of the Appalachian Mountains in New Hampshire created stronger rocks that are less prone to erosion, while Vermont's lower elevation led to higher levels of weathering and richer soils.
Cooling in the Earth and consequent convection of the mantle cause plate tectonics, leading to different rock types appearing in different areas. The differing structures of these rock types make them more or less susceptible to weathering. For instance, in Vermont, the dominant rocks are likely more susceptible to weathering, leading to richer soils; in New Hampshire, the opposite is likely true.
Vermont's industries are shaped by glacial deposits that contributed to its fertile soil, while New Hampshire's industries emerged from volcanic activity that made its soil less fertile.
Ocean currents along the eastern seaboard brought different minerals to Vermont and New Hampshire. These minerals create soil that is more rich in Vermont, where the maple syrup and dairy industries dominate.
How did the basaltic dike appear in the Quechee Gorge?
Due to the eruption and cooling of lava from large volcanos in Hanover during the Ordovician Period (450 Ma)
From magma cross-cutting older rock beds during the Devonian Period (400 Ma)
The intrusion of magma between rifting older beds of rock during the Jurassic Period (200 Ma)
Deposition of sediments on the sea floor which eventually got pushed up on to land and metamorphosed during the Devonian Period (400 Ma)
Which of the following statements about the formation of stars is incorrect?
Stars start to form when hydrogen and helium atoms come together to form gaseous blobs due to the gravitational force acting on these particles.
The gravitational force will overcome the energy produced by nuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms and thus collapse the star indefinitely.
Stars will eventually run out of hydrogen and then will begin to shed their outer layer.
Carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen are all formed towards the end of a star’s life.
There is lots of evidence supporting the theory that carbonaceous chondrites are the source for Earth’s water. Which statement is incorrect?
For every 1 million hydrogen atoms found in a typical carbonaceous chondrite, 300 of them are heavy, matching the chemical signature of Earth’s water.
Carbonaceous chondrites formed beyond the Protoplanetary Frost Line allowing them to contain water.
Carbonaceous chondrites contain 150 ppm deuterium, similar to that of water found on Earth.
Comets were richer in heavy hydrogen than water found on Earth, so were ruled out as its source.
Given the dramatic effects of climate change on life 250 million years ago, which of the following could be predicted about the potential outcome of our current climate situation?
Global temperatures will reach an uninhabitable extreme and extinguish life on Earth; the high temperatures will be solely responsible for mass extinction
Life will be able to adapt to the increasing global temperatures and no significant effect will occur
The rapid increase in global temperatures causes unpredictable climate extremes (beyond just general warming), and these climate extremes will not be adaptable due to their variability and destructive effects
The need for advancements in technology will drive innovation towards creating systems and facilities that offer relief from heat, both for human life and necessary industries (eg agriculture)
About 3 billion years ago, algae began to photosynthesize, increasing the amount of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere. Ultraviolet light promoted the conversion of some of this oxygen into ozone, leading to the formation of the ozone layer. What happened as a result of the formation of the ozone layer?
The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased
The amount of oxygen in the atmosphere increased
More UV radiation reached the surface of the Earth
Fewer plants were able to grow on Earth
Which of the following assumptions made by Lord Kelvin in his estimation of the Earth's age was incorrect?
He assumed the Earth cooled uniformly from a completely molten state, neglecting internal heat sources like radioactive decay.
He assumed that the Earth's cooling rate was constant, not accounting for heat from the Sun that could slow the cooling process.
He assumed that the Earth's surface was constantly being renewed through volcanic activity, which prolonged its cooling period.
He assumed that heat was lost only through convection, ignoring the effects of heat conduction and radiation.
The development of earth's hydrosphere is a contested debate among earth scientists. However, what is the most likely suspect for how earth's water ended up on the planet?
Comets rich in heavy hydrogen from beyond the solar system.
Carbonaceous chondrite meteors.
Water was formed overtime on the planet via ongoing reaction of hydrogen and oxygen atoms internally.
Earth's water was part of its original formation in the form of solid frozen water particles.