Unit Three: Culture and Mass Media — Comprehensive Notes

3.1 Human Evolution and Culture

• Generally, human culture is connected to human evolution.

• Hominid lineages and timelines mentioned in the transcript:

  • $ext{Homo Sapiens} ext{ (about } 70{,}000{,}000 ext{ years back)}$
  • $ext{Australopithecus Africans} ext{ (about } 5 ext{ to } 1{,}000{,}000 ext{ years ago)}$
  • $ext{Homo Habilis} ext{ (one of our early ancestors)}$
  • $ext{Homo Erectus}$
  • $ext{Cro-Magnon Homo Sapiens} ext{ (about } 35{,}000 ext{ to } 40{,}000 ext{ yrs ago)}$

• Cro-Magnon Homo Sapiens were described as the final human development, with better social organization, a skull structure & larynx.

• 3.1 cont.: During later times, humans:

  • lived in bigger groups and pursued civilization
  • engaged in agriculture
  • developed different tools, cave paintings, carvings
  • hunted, made & preserved food
  • reared children, made clothes, tamed animals
  • grouped into communities, communicated & interacted for survival
  • formed common habits, practices & beliefs

• Result: community culture was created.

3.2 Conceptualizing Culture

• The term culture: first coined & defined in the 19th century by Edward B. Taylor in Primitive Culture (1871).

• Etymology: from Latin Cultura, related to cult/worship/civilization.

• Conceptualized from multiple disciplinary perspectives: Sociology, Ethnology, Philosophy, Cultural studies.

• Characterized as vague, exhaustive & ambivalent; covers many things and is dynamic, non-uniform, social.

• 3.2 cont.: Contemporary sociologists view culture as:

  • the collection of shared: $ext{ideas, knowledge, belief, art, morals, customs, habits, traditions, music, mode of worship, eating manners, aesthetic values, production practices, modes of communication, etc.}$
  • it communicates both implicit & explicit meaning about ideas
  • it is a set of norms, values, beliefs, & practices.

• Key terms:

  • Norms: rules of conduct by which societies are structured
  • Values: standards to distinguish good things from bad
  • Beliefs: convictions that people hold to be true
  • Mass Media (MM) help circulate norms, values & beliefs

• 3.2 cont.: Core assumptions about culture:

  • develops over time and exists in all forms of communication
  • influences our decisions & actions in life
  • establishes differences in interpreting the world
  • links individuals to their society
  • shares meaningful information via language
  • NB: Cultures may share common elements (e.g., all cultures have language; all recognize family structures). However, cultural differences are generally more prevalent than universal elements.

3.3 Categories of Culture

I. Material and Non-Material

• Materials: manufactured for survival; tangible artefacts & crafts (e.g., clothing, hairstyles, jewellery, buildings, tools, instruments)
• Non-materials: abstract phenomena developed to guide life and society (e.g., ideas, principles, taboos, moral values, norms, beliefs)

II. Popular (Mass) Culture and Folk Culture

• Popular (Mass) Culture:
  • spread via influential MM and other information technologies (radio, TV, movies, music, publishers, websites, etc.)
  • based on rapid, simultaneous global connections
  • becoming globally more dominant
  • threatens survival of unique folk cultures
  • often does not reflect the diversity of local conditions
  • found in large, heterogeneous societies with shared habits
  • covers a larger geographic territory
  • may modify the environment toward global values
  • examples: baseball games, pop music
• Folk culture (traditional culture):
  • developed & practiced by a small, homogeneous group
  • typically covers a smaller, isolated territory
  • consists of unique customs (e.g., wearing a specific cloth)
  • results from limited communication with others
  • disappearance reduces local diversity
  • resists/demands survival against global mass culture; often regenerated after being overwhelmed by global culture (e.g., revitalization or rebirth after colonial destruction of many African cultures)

III. Popular Culture and High Culture

• Popular Culture: known & accessible to most people; mainstream
• High Culture: practices & attitudes of the highest class; may be viewed as superior to popular culture; often associated with intellectualism, political power, wealth

IV. Universal Culture and Subcultures

• Universal Culture (cultural universals):
  • never requires commercial media to spread
  • common patterns shared globally by all societies
  • includes basic human survival practices & experiences: finding food, clothing, shelter, worshiping, language, birth/death/illness & healing practices, family units (reproduction, child care)
• Sub-cultures (co-cultures):
  • sub implies under/secondary; no culture is superior or inferior to others
  • constituents within the dominant culture
  • distinctive values, norms & rules are derived from them
  • part of the whole but equally important
  • often based on economic/social class, ethnicity, region
  • belong to relatively small groups that exist under the mainstream and distinguish themselves (e.g., hunters, musicians, football players)

3.4 Cultural Diversity and its Management

3.4.1 What is Cultural Diversity?

• Cultural diversity is viewed differently by different authors; considered both specific & contextual.

• An important element distinguishing individuals’ identity.

• Double-edged sword: can be a competitive advantage if handled well; can be a source of conflict if ignored.

• Includes visible & non-visible factors that cause differences: $ext{gender, age, ethnicity, religion, language, profession, education, personality, hierarchical status, nationality, etc.}$

• In organizations, cultural diversity is workforce diversity.

• 3.4.2 Concepts and Features (in organizations):

  • Organizations exist to fulfill human needs and should align with society
  • Need diverse employees to mirror diverse customers

3.4.2 Importance of Cultural Diversity

• Benefits in organizational contexts:
  • Better customer service: culturally diverse workplaces can serve diverse customers more effectively
  • Firm’s image enhancement: valuing cultural diversity improves image, creates a supportive environment, and builds mutual trust & cooperation
• Additional advantages:
  • Better approaches to problem solving: more information, diverse viewpoints, richer ideas, broader knowledge sources
  • More innovative: diverse backgrounds contribute to creativity and innovation; thus, diversity is a need for recruitment, training, promotion, recognizing its value, and appreciating diverse beliefs & values

3.4.3 Challenges of Cultural Diversity

• Potential drawbacks:
  • Disagreement & lower performance due to cultural clashes; may hinder full participation of minority members; homogeneous groups can outperform diverse ones
  • Higher turnover & absenteeism among minorities; greater heterogeneity can reduce social integration
  • Communication barriers: cultural and language differences may hinder organizational communication and teamwork
• Additional challenges:
  • Resistance to change: people adapt slowly; old habits persist ("I used to do it this way")
  • Feeling exploited or risk of job loss among diverse employees; limited access to opportunities in some areas
  • Costly diversity policy implementation; mandatory training may not work well; need to embed diversity in policies and processes

3.4.4 Approaches to Cultural Diversity Management

• Managing diversity means developing organizational structures/processes that create an equitable workplace and help achieve goals; responsibility of all employees, not just top management

• Alternative approaches to managing CD:
  1) Ignoring cultural differences (parochial organizations) – diversity is deemphasized, with minimal efforts to address differences
  2) Minimizing cultural differences (ethnocentric organizations) – recognizes CD but treats it as a source of problems; seeks to reduce diversity; may prefer a homogeneous workforce
  3) Managing cultural differences (synergetic organizations) – recognizes benefits and drawbacks; uses creative combinations; trains managers and employees to recognize differences and translate them into advantages

• Important strategies to manage CD:

  • Focus on proactive programs; ensure equal opportunity & fair treatment for everyone
  • Respect, accept & promote understanding of cultural differences
  • Accommodate diverse customer groups; believe customers can be served well
  • Integrate employees from different cultural backgrounds; assign roles aligned with cultural backgrounds where appropriate
  • Develop a positive diversity climate; assess the current policy/cultural situation
  • Raise awareness about diversity among employees; involve all staff in implementing new systems
  • Develop specific diversity management policies & programs
  • Focus on selection, appraisal, and training for further awareness
  • Manage transitions through diverse training programs
  • Measure achievements in improved relations with customers and productivity
  • Tolerate dissenting ideas and be flexible
  • Respond quickly to changing customer desires and actions
  • Value and respect individual contributions; foster a fair environment where people feel valued

3.5 Culture and Mass Communication

3.5.1 Culture and Language

• Language is a fundamental building block of thought

• It is any system of cultural words/symbols; represents material & non-material concepts of human life

• Language is a cultural universal and responsible for group cultural symbols & practices

• NB: People who speak the same language may not share the same culture

• Culture as expressions that guide:

  • who belongs to the society and what rules apply to them
  • where & what to learn, where & how to work, eat & sleep

• Culture determines:

  • interpersonal & group relationships
  • how people encode & decode messages in certain conditions
  • how to behave & interpret others’ behavior
  • people’s entire performance of communicative behaviors; thus, how to communicate with others

• Therefore, articulation of culture requires words (language)

3.5.2 Culture and Mass Media

• Mass media circulate cultural values & practices; reinforce, maintain, sustain & extend culture and its functions

• MM produce culturally meaningful texts and distribute them; create and view people’s cultural connections with others

• Therefore: culture and communication are inseparable; when cultures vary, communication practices also vary

• Culture is a form of communication; all systems of culture describe forms of communication through language; culture is the foundation of communication

• MM also conveys what looks attractive/acceptable and what is not; ideas and values should/should not be shared in society

• Messages can reinforce or humiliate cultural values

• People reflect on themselves and others via questions: Am I good-looking? More/less religious than most people? Do what I like to eat or wear align with what most people like? How do I fit into the culture?

• MM portray culture through celebrities or actions which are not merely superficial or entertainment; they can promote courageous truth-telling and convey multiple messages about cultural values or provide concrete examples of abstract values

  • Example: singers representing a sense of freedom against mainstream culture

• Note: Mass communication is where cultural power resides. When we listen to music, read a book, or watch TV, we assign meaning to the MM message and connect with something based on the cultural context in which the media operate. Our entire repertoire of communicative behaviors is largely shaped by the culture we live in

3.6 Post-Modernism, Culture and Media

• Each era emerges during distinct periods with different philosophies and features; these periods guide thought and action and are marked by changes in how we perceive the world, culture, technology, social behavior, and communication forms/functions
• Cultural periods have three phases: Medieval, Modernism, and Postmodernism

3.6.1 Medieval Period (5th–15th centuries)

• From fall of Rome to the Renaissance
• Characteristics: absence of scientific activity and centralized state in Europe; Catholic Church as the dominant institution; monarchs drawing power from the Church; supremacy of God; feudalism; expansion of Islamic faith; Crusades; Black Death (~$2.0 imes 10^7$) Europeans died (about 30%) during 1347–1350
• Question raised in the text: What was the mass communication system during that time?

3.6.2 The Modern Age

• Post-medieval era; date ranges vary, typically mid-15th to mid-20th century
• Key features: Enlightenment; technological & scientific discoveries; rationalism, reason, and absolute truth; discovery of new truths through experimentation; grand narratives (e.g., capitalism, Marxism, Freudianism, Darwinism, fascism)
• Belief in a single ultimate truth; Renaissance; individualism; urbanization; breaking with tradition; simplicity & clarity in art, literature & design; engagement with political & social issues; scientific & technological progress; representative democracy & public education; optimism, freedom, happiness, equality
• The Modern Age can be divided into two parts:
  • I. Early Modern Periods (mid-15th to late 18th): Gutenberg’s printing press (mid-15th) spurred literacy, the Renaissance, educational reform, spread of knowledge; improvements in transportation; capitalism; Protestant Reformation; colonialism; secularization; politics became secularized; print media enabled wider information access
  • II. Late Modern Period (late 18th to mid-20th): massive political, social & economic changes; Industrial Revolution (England, c. 1750); American Revolution (1776); French Revolution (1789); rejection of monarchy; emergence of national sovereignty & democracy
• Impacts on mass media: expanded print media production and distribution; increased public participation in politics; urbanization and mass literacy contributed to mass culture and globalization, especially at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century; new technologies emerged (bikes, planes, cars, light bulbs, telephones, radio)
• Social and cultural changes: democracy’s rise, abolition of slavery, women’s suffrage; ideology (Marx & Freud) began to influence accounts of human life; arts and literature flourished

3.6.3 Postmodernism

3.6.3.1 Historical Evolution

• Modernism’s promises began to falter; postmodernism emerged in the latter half of the 20th century as a reaction to unfulfilled modernist dreams
• Early attribution: first introduced by Hegel (1770–1831); brought to public attention in the 1940s; often dated to post-World War II (1950s)

3.6.3.2 Concept of Postmodernism

• Postmodernism: a slippery term with debated duration; characterized by:

  • social changes in Western society (1960s); pluralism, pessimism, disillusionment, feminism
  • reappraisal of modern conventions; decline of absolute knowledge, truth, & reason
  • lack of central, agreed-upon meanings; contingency, context, relativism & diversity
  • reality constructed through language, culture & individual views
  • a depthless, superficial world; a world of simulation; diversity of human experience
  • reinterpretation of past elements; questioning linear historical progress
  • recycling of cultural references; challenging originality; critique of political power
  • emphasis on subcultures; rejection of grand narratives in favor of micro-narratives
  • multiplicity of small, localized understandings; a society dominated by rapid technological change and the rise of the Internet
  • value on the artist’s and viewer’s role in creating meaning; mixing of high and low culture

• Core claims of Postmodernism about knowledge and reality:

  • No single dominant, conventional meanings; no absolute, objective truth accessible by experimentation
  • Reality is contingent and depends on the observer’s experience
  • No universal theory of knowledge; multiple truths exist
  • Knowledge is socially constructed, time- and space-specific, reflects social positions of the informant & informed
  • Knowledge is perspectival, local, plural, and diverse

3.6.4 Postmodernism and Media

• Across history, media and culture reflect eras; media forms indicate cultural phases
• In Postmodernism: mass media (MM) contribute to knowledge of the world; individuals gain knowledge about reality through MM
• Reality revealed by MM can vary from social reality; MM knowledge can be fragmented, confusing, overwhelming, and largely simulated (hyper-real)
• The Postmodern world is portrayed as disillusioned and saturated with diverse belief systems that may be discredited or treated as less true
• Cultural expressions of postmodernism include visual arts, literature, music, graphic design, cinema, digital communication, language & linguistics, economics, philosophy, architecture, and literary criticism; strong mixing of high and low culture
• In the Modern era, culture was often seen as separate from ordinary life; people visited museums, galleries or theatres to observe culture
• In the Postmodern era, MM break these distinctions; social life is embedded in ordinary spaces (TV, radio, computers in living rooms, bedrooms, workplaces); cultural representations are part of daily life; contemporary societies are saturated with MM and IT, entering an age of simulation
• Postmodernists argue that society’s social organization is collapsing under the weight of ubiquitous MM; information overload can destroy meaning; public spheres are eroding; grand narratives lose authority; media programs can emphasize surface style and imagery over substantive themes; some examples critique MM as the “fourth estate” or warn of the potential loss of free press due to political and economic pressures
• Examples discussed include how MM programs can be influenced by owners or sponsors to meet political or economic goals, while audiences may also shape programs through demand