Thomas Dekker (1572-1632)
Early Life: Little is known about Thomas Dekker’s early life. He was likely born in London around 1572. His last name suggests Dutch ancestry. The fact that some of his work was translated from Latin suggests that he attended grammar school.
Career: Dekker began writing for the theater in the mid-1590s. His handwriting appears in the manuscript of Sir Thomas More (by Anthony Munday), though the date of his contribution is unknown. His work for Philip Henslowe's Admiral's Men is documented beginning in 1598. Although some plays with his name were performed as early as 1594, it is uncertain if he was the original author, as much of his work involved revising and updating existing plays. Between 1598 and 1602, he collaborated on approximately 40 plays for Henslowe. The collaborations with Ben Jonson and John Marston during these years likely contributed to the War of the Theatres in 1600 and 1601. Dekker is credited as the sole author of The Shoemaker's Holiday (1599), which is considered his masterpiece. The play is a comedy that portrays London life through the eyes of a romanticist. Francis Meres included Dekker in his 1598 list of notable playwrights.
Dekker and Jonson had a contentious relationship. Jonson considered Dekker an incompetent writer and ridiculed him in his plays Poetaster and Cynthia's Revels. Dekker retaliated by satirizing Jonson in his play Satiromastix. (For Jonson, however, Dekker was a bumbling hack, a "dresser of plays about town"; Jonson lampooned Dekker as Demetrius Fannius in Poetaster and as Anaides in Cynthia's Revels. Dekker's riposte, Satiromastix, performed both by the Lord Chamberlain's Men and the child actors of Paul's, casts Jonson as an affected, hypocritical Horace.)
Despite their animosity, Jonson and Dekker collaborated again in 1603 on a pageant for the delayed coronation of King James I. Dekker also wrote the festival book, The Magnificent Entertainment, for the event.
The early Jacobean period was a mixed bag for Dekker. His association with Henslowe ended in late 1602 for unknown reasons. He briefly wrote for Worcester’s Men, then returned to the Admiral’s Men (now Prince Henry’s Men) and produced The Honest Whore, which was a success. However, his plays The Whore of Babylon (1607) and If This Be Not a Good Play, the Devil is in It (1611) were failures. The latter play was rejected by Prince Henry’s Men and was unsuccessful when performed by Queen Anne’s Men at the Red Bull Theatre.
Legal Troubles: Dekker struggled with debt throughout his life. In 1599, he was imprisoned at Poultry Compter for debt. His financial problems came to a head in 1612 when he was incarcerated at King's Bench Prison for failing to repay a debt of 40 pounds to the father of playwright John Webster. He spent seven years in prison. Though he received support from Edward Alleyn and Endymion Porter, these years were difficult. Dekker claimed that his hair turned white from the experience. He continued writing pamphlets while imprisoned.
Later Years: After his release, Dekker resumed writing plays, collaborating with both playwrights of his generation (John Day and John Webster) and younger writers (John Ford and Philip Massinger). One of these plays, Keep the Widow Waking (1624), which he co-wrote with Ford, Webster, and William Rowley, dramatized two murders that had recently taken place in Whitechapel. In the late 1620s, Dekker turned his attention back to pamphlet writing, updating his previous work and writing a new preface for his most popular work, The Bellman of London.
Work: Dekker's body of work was extensive and varied. He wrote many plays, pamphlets, and poems. His most famous play, The Shoemaker’s Holiday is categorized as a citizen comedy. This play exemplifies his ability to blend everyday life with the fantastical. His work often reflected his interest in and concern for the lives of ordinary Londoners. Dekker’s plays from the 1620s were staged at the large amphitheatres north of London, most frequently at the Red Bull. Two of his later plays were performed at the more exclusive Cockpit Theatre. These two plays were likely produced by Christopher Beeston, who operated both the Red Bull and the Cockpit.
Dekker was also a prolific pamphleteer. His pamphlets covered a wide range of topics and styles, but they generally offer vivid depictions of everyday life in Jacobean London. Dekker's first foray into pamphlet writing occurred in 1603, perhaps during a period when the theaters were closed due to the plague. His first pamphlet, The Wonderful Yeare, recounted the death of Queen Elizabeth I, the ascension of King James I, and the 1603 plague. It was a success, prompting him to write two more plague pamphlets, News From Gravesend and The Meeting of Gallants at an Ordinary. Dekker wrote several "cony-catching" pamphlets that detailed the schemes and scams of con men and thieves. These pamphlets, which he frequently updated and reissued, include The Belman of London (1608), Lanthorne and Candle-light, Villainies Discovered by Candlelight, and English Villainies. He based these pamphlets on similar works by Robert Greene.
Dekker drew on his prison experience in some of his pamphlets. His work Dekker His Dreame (1620) is a poem that describes his time in prison. He also contributed prison-related sketches to the sixth edition (1616) of Sir Thomas Overbury's Characters. Additionally, he updated Lanthorne and Candlelight to reflect his time in prison.
Death: Dekker's last known publication was in 1632. He died on August 25, 1632, and was buried at St James's Church, Clerkenwell. He seemingly died in poverty, as his widow relinquished administration of his estate, suggesting he left behind little to no assets. In a pamphlet, Dekker declared his love for London despite the struggles he endured there, including plague, poverty, and imprisonment. His love for the city is evident in his plays and the characters who inhabit them.
Here is a list of Dekker's works mentioned in the Wikipedia article:
Plays
Early Plays (1598-1602): Many of Dekker's early plays were written in collaboration with other playwrights, including Robert Wilson, Henry Chettle, and Michael Drayton. Some of these plays include:
Phaeton (1598)
The Triplicity of Cuckolds
The Mad Man's Morris
Hannibal and Hermes
Plays about the French Civil Wars
Earl Godwin
Troilus and Cressida (1599)
Agamemnon (1599), co-written with Chettle
Page of Plymouth (1599)
A play about Robert II (1599), co-written with Chettle, Jonson, and Marston
The Seven Wise Masters (1600)
Fortune's Tennis (1600)
Cupid and Psyche (1600)
Fair Constance of Rome (1600)
A play possibly about Sebastian of Portugal (1601)
Pontius Pilate (revised in 1602; original 1597)
Sir John Oldcastle, Part 2 (revised in 1602)
Caesar's Fall (1602), co-written with Thomas Middleton
Jephthah (1602)
A Medicine for a Curst Wife (1602)
Sir Thomas Wyatt (1602)
Christmas Comes But Once a Year (1602)
Comedies:
The Shoemaker’s Holiday (1599): Considered Dekker's best work, this play is a comedy that offers a romanticized view of London life, particularly the lives of tradesmen and apprentices.
Old Fortunatus (1599)
Blurt, Master Constable (1601-02). subtitle of the play, "The Spaniards' Night Walk,". Similarity with Romeo and Juliet and Much Ado About Nothing.
The Honest Whore (1604), co-written with Middleton
Westward Ho (1604), co-written with John Webster
Northward Ho (1607), co-written with Webster
The Roaring Girl (1607-10): A city comedy co-written with Middleton, this play features Moll Cutpurse (Mary Frith), a real-life cross-dressing woman known for her sword-fighting skills.
Tragedies:
Lust’s Dominion (1600): Likely the same play as The Spanish Moor’s Tragedy, which was co-written with Day, Marston, and William Haughton. In the Restoration era, Aphra Behn adapted the play into Abdelazar, or The Moor's Revenge (1676), her sole venture into Restoration tragedy.
The Witch of Edmonton (1621): This play, co-written with Ford and Rowley, tells the story of Elizabeth Sawyer, a woman accused of witchcraft. It is notable for its sympathetic portrayal of Sawyer, suggesting that she is a victim of societal pressures.
The Virgin Martyr (1620), co-written with Philip Massinger
Tragicomedies:
Patient Grissel (1603), co-written with Chettle and Haughton
The Merry Devil of Edmonton (1604)
Sir Thomas Wyatt (1607), co-written with Webster
The Bloody Banquet (1608-09), co-written with Middleton
Match Me in London (1611)
The Tragical History of Guy Earl of Warwick (1620)
The Noble Spanish Soldier (1622)
The Spanish Gypsy (1623), co-written with Rowley, Middleton, and Ford
The Sun’s Darling (1624), co-written with Ford
Lost Plays:
Keep the Widow Waking (1624): Also known as, The Late Murder of the Son upon the Mother, this play, which is now lost, was based on two recent murders in Whitechapel. It was a collaboration between Dekker, Ford, Webster, and Rowley.
The Welsh Ambassador (1623): This play is a comedic adaptation of Dekker’s earlier tragicomedy The Noble Spanish Soldier.
The Fairy Knight (1624), co-written with Ford
The Bristow Merchant (1624), co-written with Ford
The Bellman of Paris (1623), co-written with Day
The Wonder of a Kingdom (1623), co-written with Day
Other Dramatic Works:
The Magnificent Entertainment (1603): A festival book written for the delayed coronation of King James I.
Prose
Plague Pamphlets:
The Wonderful Yeare (1603): A pamphlet in which Dekker uses a variety of literary genres to offer a journalistic account of the death of Queen Elizabeth I, the accession of King James I, and the plague of 1603.
News from Gravesend
The Meeting of Gallants at an Ordinary
The Seven Deadly Sins of London (1606)
Cony-Catching Pamphlets:
The Belman of London (1608): This pamphlet, which Dekker often revised and re-released, details the tricks and cons of thieves and con men, including the language used by thieves.
Lanthorne and Candle-light
Villainies Discovered by Candlelight
English Villainies
Other Pamphlets:
The Double PP (1606): An anti-Catholic tract written in response to the Gunpowder Plot.
News from Hell (1606): A continuation of Thomas Nashe's Pierce Penniless.
The Dead Term (1608): A description of Westminster when it is not in session.
The Gull's Hornbook (1609): A satirical pamphlet that offers a glimpse into the life of a London gallant, including information about London theater etiquette.
Work for Armourers (1609): A look at England's military industries.
The Artillery Garden (1616): A pamphlet, written in verse, about England’s military industries.
Dekker His Dreame (1620): A poem that describes Dekker's imprisonment.
Six prison-based sketches published in the 1616 edition of Sir Thomas Overbury's Characters.
London Look Back (1630): Dekker's observations on 1625, the year of King James I's death.
Wars, Wars, Wars (1628): A work about European conflict.
Poetry:
"Golden Slumbers": A lullaby from Patient Grissel, some of the lyrics of which were used by Paul McCartney in the Beatles' 1969 song "Golden Slumbers."
"The Merry Month of May": A poem featured in The Shoemaker's Holiday.
Except for Blurt, which was performed by the Blackfriars Children, the earlier of these works were performed at the Admiral's Fortune Theatre. After 1602, Dekker split his attention between pamphlets and plays; thus, his dramatic output decreased considerably. He and Middleton wrote The Honest Whore for the Fortune in 1604, and Dekker wrote a sequel himself the following year. The Middleton/Dekker collaboration The Family of Love also dates from this general era. Dekker and Webster wrote Westward Ho and Northward Ho for Paul's Boys.
Quotes From Thomas Dekker's Works
Here is a list of quotes from Thomas Dekker's works:
From Old Fortunatus (1599):
"A wise man poor / Is like a sacred book that’s never read,— / To himself he lives, and to all else seems dead. / This age thinks better of a gilded fool / Than of a threadbare saint in wisdom’s school."
"And though mine arm should conquer twenty worlds, / There ’s a lean fellow beats all conquerors."
From Patient Grissel (1599):
"To add to golden numbers golden numbers." (Act I, Scene 1)
"Honest labour bears a lovely face." (Act I, Scene 1)
"Art thou poor, yet hast thou golden slumbers? / O sweet content! / Art thou rich, yet is thy mind perplex'd? / O punishment!" (from the poem "Sweet Content")
From The Honest Whore (1604):
"The best of men / That e’er wore earth about him was a sufferer; / A soft, meek, patient, humble, tranquil spirit, / The first true gentleman that ever breathed." (Part I, Act I, Scene 12)
"I was ne’er so thrummed since I was a gentleman." (Part I, Act IV, Scene 2)
"This principle is old, but true as fate,— / Kings may love treason, but the traitor hate." (Part I, Act IV, Scene 4)
"We are ne’er like angels till our passion dies." (Part II, Act I, Scene 2)
"Turn over a new leaf." (Part II, Act II, Scene 1)
From The Noble Spanish Soldier (1622):
"ONAELIA: One step to human bliss is sweet revenge."
"ONAELIA: You are like common beadles, apt to lash / Almost to death poor wretches not worth striking, / But fawn with slavish flattery on damned vices / So great men act them. You clap hands at those, / Where the true poet indeed doth scorn to gild / A gaudy tomb with glory of his verse, / Which coffins stinking carrion."
"ONAELIA: What sort of poets are there? / POET: Two sorts lady: The great poets and the small poets. / ONAELIA: Great and small! Which do you call the great? The fat ones?"
"ALANZO: Wrongs, like great whirlwinds, / Shake highest battlements. Few for heaven would care, / Should they be ever happy."
"KING: I am full of thoughts, / A thousand wheels toss my incertain fears, / There is a storm in my hot boiling brains, / Which rises without wind. A horrid one."
"BALTHAZAR: I have a private coat for Italian stilettos, I can be treacherous with the Walloon, drunk with the Dutch, a chimney-sweeper with the Irish, a gentleman with the Welsh and true arrant thief with the English. What then is my country to me?"
"BALTHAZAR: Subjects may stumble, when kings walk astray. / Thine acts shall be a new Apocrypha."
"BALTHAZAR: Sin is a raven croaking her own fall."
"QUEEN: But Hymen's torch, held downward, shall drop out, / And for it, the mad Furies swing their brands / About the bride-chamber."
From The Shoemaker's Holiday (1599):
"Tomorrow Shadow will I give the gold / tomorrow Pride goes bare and lust are cold / tomorrow will the rich man feed the poor / and vice tomorrow virtue will adore / tomorrow Beggars will be crowned Kings / this no time Morrow's time no sweetness sings"
"The theater is your poet's exchange upon which their Muses meeting barter away that light commodity of words for a lighter wear Than Words platitudes and the breath of the great Beast which like the threatenings of two cowards vanish all into hair"
From The Whore of Babylon (1607):
"let the poet set the note of his numbers even to Apollo's own liar the play / ERS will have their own crotchets and sing false notes in dispute with all the rules of Music"
"the players were also ill nurses for the handling of children and bad tailors ruining good cloth the play"
From the Preface to The Whore of Babylon (1607):
"Elizabeth's Reign was so magnificent that the art of no pen is able to reach it"
"the play will be clear to the least intelligent spectator we present mattera / above the vulgar argument yet draw so Lively that the weakest eye through these thin veils we hang between your sight and this our piece May reach the mystery"
From the Dedication to Match Me in London (1631):
"I have been a priest of Apollo's Temple many years my voice is decaying with my age"
From an Unidentified Pamphlet:
"oh London thou mother of my life nurse of my being"
In The Gull's Hornbook, Dekker advises a gallant to "take up a rush and tickle the earnest ears of your fellow galants to make other Fools Fall to laughing," .
Old Fortunatus
Details on Old Fortunatus
Full Title: The Pleasant Comedie of Old Fortunatus
Type of Play: The play does not fit neatly into any single category but it is a mixture of prose and verse. It has been called "the only example of an interlude inspired by the fully developed genius of the Renaissance".
Source Material: Old Fortunatus is based on the German legend of Fortunatus and his inexhaustible purse.
The legend was first published as a chapbook in Augsburg in 1509.
A slightly different version was published in Frankfurt am Main in 1550.
The story was dramatized in 1553 by Hans Sachs.
Date of Composition:
An English play called The First Part of Fortunatus was written in 1596, but the text has not survived. It is unknown how this play is related to Dekker's play.
Dekker wrote Old Fortunatus in November 1599.
The surviving text of Dekker's play includes revisions made for a performance before Queen Elizabeth on December 27, 1599.
First Publication: The play was published in quarto in early 1600.
Theatrical Company: Old Fortunatus was written for Philip Henslowe's Admiral's Men.
Critical Reception:
In 1808, Charles Lamb included excerpts from Old Fortunatus in his Specimens of English Dramatic Poets Who Lived about the Time of Shakespeare and stated that Dekker "had poetry enough for any thing".
In 1819, William Hazlitt, in his Lectures on the Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth, described the play as having "the idle garrulity of age, with the freshness and gaiety of youth still upon its cheek and in its heart".
In the late 19th century, American poet James Russell Lowell said the play was a favorite of his.
Literary historian George Saintsbury wrote that the play was "to the last degree crude and undigested, but the ill-matured power of the writer is almost the more apparent."
Literary historian Adolphus William Ward praised the play's "singular vigour and freshness" as well as its "appropriately naif treatment of its simple, not to say childlike, theme", but felt that the ending, where both sons come to grief, undermines Dekker's moral message.
The play was performed at Covent Garden for 11 nights in 1819 and included incidental music by Henry Bishop.
Major Characters
Fortunatus: The protagonist of the play. He is offered wisdom, strength, health, beauty, long life, or riches by Fortune. He chooses riches and is given an inexhaustible purse, but his life of luxury is cut short.
Andelocia: Fortunatus's reckless son who inherits the inexhaustible purse.
Ampedo: Fortunatus's more prudent son who inherits the magic hat.
Fortune: The goddess who grants Fortunatus the inexhaustible purse.
Vice and Virtue: Characters who appear in the play.
The Soldan of Turkey: A character who owns a magic hat that allows the wearer to travel anywhere.
Agripyne: The daughter of King Athelstane of England, who tricks Andelocia out of his inexhaustible purse.
Satiromastix
Satiromastix, or The Untrussing of the Humorous Poet is a late Elizabethan stage play by Thomas Dekker, one of the plays involved in the Poetomachia or War of the Theatres.[1]
The play was entered into the Stationers' Register on 11 November 1601, and published in quarto in 1602, printed by Edward Allde for the bookseller Edward White.[2][3] The title page of the quarto attributes authorship to Dekker, and states that the play was performed by both the Lord Chamberlain's Men and the Children of Paul's.
Scholars agree that the figure of Horace in Satiromastix represents Ben Jonson. As George Kirkpatrick Hunter argues,
"In Satiromastix, Horace (Jonson) is represented as a social hanger-on and toady, desperate to establish himself as an independent moralist but fearful of being held responsible for his judgments. We know his writing is corrupt, not because it is bad writing but because he himself is dishonest; his verse is concocted to exploit social possibilities, though he represents it as an essential part of a well-regulated state..."
The Honest Whore
Details on The Honest Whore
Genre: The Honest Whore is a city comedy written in two parts. City comedies were popular during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras and were characterized by their realistic depiction of city life and their focus on the lives of ordinary people.
Parts and Acts: The sources do not mention the number of acts in The Honest Whore.
Collaboration:
Part 1 was a collaboration between Thomas Dekker and Thomas Middleton.
Part 2 was written by Dekker alone.
Acting Company: The Honest Whore was acted by the Admiral's Men, a playing company under the patronage of Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, who held the office of Lord High Admiral. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography states that Part 1 was performed by Prince Henry's Men at the Fortune Theatre in 1604.
Performance and Publication History:
Part 1:
November 9, 1604: Entered into the Stationers' Register.
1604: The first quarto was published and printed by Valentine Simmes for the bookseller John Hodges.
1605, 1606, 1616: Subsequent quartos were published.
Undated: A fifth quarto was published.
1635: Q6 was published and printed by Nicholas Okes for the bookseller Richard Collins.
Part 2:
1605 or 1606: Likely written.
April 29, 1608: Entered into the Stationers' Register.
1630: First quarto published, printed by Elizabeth Allde for the bookseller Nathaniel Butter.
Later Use:
1799: American playwright William Dunlap adapted The Honest Whore for his play The Italian Father, which was first performed in New York.
1830: American playwright Richard Penn Smith based his play The Deformed on The Honest Whore and Dunlap's adaptation.
A Closer Look at the Scenes of The Honest Whore, Part 1
Scene 1: Milan Street, Infelice's Funeral Procession
The play opens with a somber funeral procession, establishing the supposed death of Infelice. This immediately introduces the theme of deception, which will be central to the play.
Hippolito's extreme reaction to Infelice's supposed death highlights his passionate nature and foreshadows his future actions.
Matteo's cynical prediction that Hippolito will soon forget Infelice and seek solace in a brothel introduces the play's exploration of male desire and morality.
Scene 2: Outside Candido's Home
The introduction of Candido, the "monstrously patient" linen-draper, and his wife, Viola, sets up a comic subplot that parallels the main plot's themes of temptation and virtue.
Viola's desire to see her husband angry, even if it means resorting to trickery, adds a layer of complexity to her character and suggests that patience can sometimes be a flaw.
Fustigo's willingness to participate in the ruse for financial gain establishes him as a somewhat opportunistic and morally ambiguous character.
Scene 3: Private Chamber in the Duke's Castle
This scene reveals the truth about Infelice's "death," confirming the audience's suspicions of deception.
The Duke's (Gaspero Trebazzi) manipulative actions and willingness to resort to murder to control his daughter's life establish him as the play's primary antagonist.
Doctor Benedict's ambiguous role as both accomplice and potential savior adds an element of suspense to the plot.
Scene 4: Outside Candido's Shop
Castruccio's wager with Pioratto sets up a challenge to Candido's patience and raises the question of whether anyone can remain truly unmoved in the face of extreme provocation.
Scene 5: Candido's Shop
The gallants' elaborate attempts to provoke Candido provide much of the play's humor. Their actions highlight the absurdity of social conventions and the lengths people will go to for entertainment or personal gain.
Candido's unwavering patience, while admirable in some respects, can also be seen as a form of detachment from his wife and the world around him.
Viola's frustration with her husband's passivity further emphasizes the potential drawbacks of excessive patience.
Scene 6: Bellafront's Room
Bellafront is introduced as a complex character – a prostitute who desires to be "honest" and find true love.
Hippolito's initial rejection of Bellafront stems from his grief over Infelice and his moral condemnation of prostitution.
The scene's conclusion, with Bellafront's emotional outburst and Hippolito's seemingly callous departure, creates a sense of unresolved tension between the two characters.
Scene 7: Candido's Shop
Fustigo's "swaggering" performance and the apprentices' reactions generate further humor and reveal the underlying tensions between social classes.
Candido's continued patience, even when physically assaulted, pushes the limits of plausibility and highlights the play's comedic exaggeration.
Viola's escalating tricks, culminating in Candido's arrest for madness, suggest a growing desperation in her desire to provoke a reaction from her husband.
Scene 8: Mistress Fingerlock's Brothel
Bellafront's firm decision to quit prostitution underscores her determination to change her life and challenges the audience's preconceived notions about prostitutes.
Mistress Fingerlock and Roger's financial concerns highlight the economic realities of prostitution and the challenges of escaping that lifestyle.
Scene 9: Bellafront's Room
Bellafront's rejection of Matteo, another of her regular customers, further emphasizes her commitment to her new path.
Scene 10: Hippolito's Room
Hippolito's isolation and his contemplation of Infelice's portrait and a skull create a melancholy atmosphere and suggest that his grief may be turning into obsession.
Bellafront's persistence in pursuing Hippolito, even after his harsh rejection, demonstrates her growing affection for him.
Scene 11: Near Candido's Shop
This brief scene focuses on Fustigo's plot for revenge and introduces the bravoes, Crambo and Poh, as agents of chaos and violence.
Scene 12: Candido's Shop
The escalating absurdity of Viola's tricks and Candido's obliviousness reaches its peak in this scene.
Candido's arrest for madness represents a turning point in the subplot, as Viola realizes the potentially disastrous consequences of her actions.
Scene 13: Doctor Benedict's Home
Doctor Benedict's double-dealing and manipulation of both the Duke and Hippolito create a sense of dramatic irony and uncertainty.
The arrangement for Hippolito and Infelice to meet at Bethlem foreshadows the chaotic events of the final scene.
Scene 14: Outside the Duke's Castle
Viola's remorse over her treatment of Candido highlights her capacity for growth and self-awareness.
The Duke's immediate and violent reaction to the news of Infelice's impending marriage reinforces his tyrannical nature.
Fluello's decision to warn Hippolito and Infelice introduces a potential obstacle to the Duke's plans and raises the stakes of the conflict.
Scene 15: Bethlem Monastery
The setting of Bethlem, a place associated with madness and confinement, creates an atmosphere of heightened tension and unpredictability.
The introduction of the three madmen, each with their own peculiar delusions, provides a darkly comedic commentary on the nature of love, jealousy, and grief.
Bellafront's arrival at Bethlem further blurs the lines between sanity and madness, as she confronts her former customers and exposes the hidden identities of Hippolito and Infelice.
The Duke's eventual forgiveness and acceptance of Hippolito, while somewhat improbable, contribute to the play's comedic resolution.
Matteo's forced marriage to Bellafront, while presented as a punishment, also hints at the possibility of redemption and transformation for both characters.
Candido's release from Bethlem and reunion with Viola provide a satisfying conclusion to the subplot and suggest that even the most patient of men can be pushed to their limits.
Part 2
Hippolito develops a strong desire for Bellafront, whose husband, Matteo, has returned to his dissolute ways. Despite being in a difficult situation, Bellafront remains steadfast in her newfound virtue. The play ends happily due to the actions of Hippolito's wife, Infelice, and Bellafront's father.
The Roaring Girl
Exploring The Roaring Girl
Authorship: The Roaring Girl was a collaborative effort between Thomas Middleton and Thomas Dekker.
Publication: The play was first published in 1611 as a quarto by the printer Nicholas Okes for the bookseller Thomas Archer.
Performance: The Roaring Girl was performed at the Fortune Theatre by Prince Henry's Men, formerly known as the Admiral's Men.
Epistle: The first edition includes an "Epistle to the Comic Play-Readers" penned by Thomas Middleton, suggesting that he considered a readership beyond the theater audience.
Subject: The play centers on Mary Frith, nicknamed "Moll Cutpurse," a real-life figure known for her rebellious and masculine persona in early 17th-century London.
Frith's character, often depicted as a cross-dressing thief, also appears in John Day's chapbook The Mad Pranks of Merry Moll of the Bankside and Nathaniel Field's play Amends for Ladies, both from the same era.
Historical records, including legal documents, support the portrayal of Mary Frith as a defiant and unconventional woman, much like the character in The Roaring Girl.
There's even speculation that Mary Frith herself may have played the role of Moll in a performance at the Fortune Theatre.
Authorship Debate: While Middleton and Dekker collaborated, scholars have attempted to discern their individual contributions.
Generally, Dekker is credited with the romantic main plot involving Mary Fitz-Allard, while Middleton is believed to be primarily responsible for the Moll Cutpurse subplot.
Scholar David Lake proposed a more specific division of authorship, assigning certain acts and scenes to each playwright.
However, Paul Mulholland argues for a more intertwined authorship, citing evidence of both playwrights' styles in many scenes, and referencing Cyrus Hoy's view that "Middleton and Dekker" is the most fitting attribution.
Analysis: Moll Cutpurse's character has sparked much discussion among critics.
Her cross-dressing and "man-woman" persona raise questions about gender roles and expectations in Early Modern England.
Moll's contradictory nature, combining male attire and a bold attitude with chastity and a rejection of male advances, challenges traditional notions of female behavior.
The play explores the dissonance between Moll's reputation as a criminal and her actual actions, prompting reflection on societal judgments of women who defied norms.
Recent Adaptation: The Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) staged a production of The Roaring Girl in 2014, featuring Lisa Dillon as Moll. The RSC even named a season of plays after this production.
Act I
Scene 1: Sebastian's Chambers in Sir Alexander's House
Sebastian Wengrave professes his love for Mary Fitz-Allard, but their fathers' demands for a dowry create an obstacle.
Sebastian reveals his plan to feign interest in Moll Cutpurse, hoping his father will see marriage to Mary as the lesser evil.
Scene 2: The Parlor of Sir Alexander's House
Sir Alexander Wengrave, concerned about his son's supposed infatuation with Moll, rejects the idea of Sebastian marrying Mary.
Sir Alexander enlists the help of Trapdoor, a spy, to discredit Moll and thwart their potential relationship.
Act II
Scene 1: Three Shops in a Row
The scene introduces the gallants Laxton, Goshawk, and Greenwit, who interact with shopkeepers and their wives, showcasing the social dynamics of London.
Jack Dapper, a young prodigal, enters seeking a fashionable feather, further highlighting the play's focus on city life.
Moll's entrance attracts Laxton's attention, and he mistakenly assumes her masculine attire signifies loose morals.
Moll agrees to meet Laxton, while Trapdoor also approaches her, offering his services in an attempt to fulfill Sir Alexander's orders.
Scene 2: A London Street
Sir Alexander spies on Sebastian, who attempts to court Moll without success, further emphasizing her chastity.
Sir Alexander's determination to expose Moll as a thief and a whore intensifies, setting up a conflict with his son and Moll herself.
Act III
Scene 1: Gray's Inn Fields
Moll, dressed in male clothing, challenges Laxton to a duel for assuming she is sexually available due to her attire.
Moll defends the honor of women, arguing against the double standard surrounding prostitution.
After wounding Laxton, Moll accepts Trapdoor as her servant, although she remains suspicious of his true motives.
Scene 2: Gallipot's House
Mistress Gallipot continues her affair with Laxton, who attempts to exploit her for money.
To secure funds, Mistress Gallipot deceives her husband, Gallipot, by claiming Laxton is a former suitor demanding her hand.
Laxton accepts the money, highlighting his manipulative and opportunistic nature.
Scene 3: Holborn Street
Trapdoor informs Sir Alexander of Sebastian and Moll's alleged plan to meet for a sexual encounter, fueling Sir Alexander's anger.
Sir Davy Dapper, concerned about his son Jack's reckless behavior, plans to have him arrested for a short time as a lesson.
Moll intervenes and helps Jack escape arrest, showcasing her street smarts and sense of justice.
Act IV
Scene 1: Sir Alexander's Chamber
Sir Alexander and Trapdoor lay a trap for Moll, hoping to catch her stealing valuables.
Sebastian and Moll enter with Mary Fitz-Allard disguised as a page, signaling their plan to outsmart Sir Alexander.
Moll, aware of the trap, resists stealing the jewels, further demonstrating her integrity.
Scene 2: Openwork's House
The wives of citizens gather, discussing the gallants and their flawed understanding of women and relationships.
Laxton's scheme to extort more money from Mistress Gallipot backfires, forcing her to confess her deception to Gallipot.
Despite the revelation, Laxton escapes punishment and even joins them for dinner, showcasing his ability to evade consequences.
Act V
Scene 1: A London Street
Moll recounts how she saved Jack from arrest, and he expresses his gratitude, revealing his cynicism towards his father's attempt to reform him through imprisonment.
Moll, increasingly suspicious of Trapdoor, dismisses him from her service.
Trapdoor reappears disguised as a soldier, but Moll sees through his ruse.
A group of cutpurses try to rob them, but Moll, feared within the criminal underworld, successfully defends herself and Jack, highlighting her complex relationship with London's underbelly.
Scene 2: Sir Alexander's House
Sir Alexander, misinformed, believes Sebastian has eloped with Moll, prompting Sir Guy to mock him for opposing the match with Mary.
Sebastian enters with his bride, initially appearing to be Moll, further solidifying Sir Alexander's distress.
The deception is revealed as Mary steps forward as the true bride, bringing relief to Sir Alexander and prompting his reconciliation with Sir Guy.
Moll reaffirms her disinterest in marriage, maintaining her independent spirit.
Trapdoor confesses his role in the scheme, leading Sir Alexander to acknowledge his flawed judgment based on public opinion.
The Shoemaker’s Holiday
Analyzing The Shoemaker's Holiday
Subtitle: The Gentle Craft
Author: Thomas Dekker
Subgenre: City comedy
First Performed: 1599 by the Admiral's Men
Introduction: The Shoemaker's Holiday tells a lively tale of love, social mobility, and the everyday lives of London's citizens, especially shoemakers, set against the backdrop of war and royal intrigue.
King's Reign: The play is set during the reign of King Henry VI, with subtle references to the reign of his predecessor, King Henry V.
Date and Text:
Five editions were printed during Dekker's lifetime, with the first appearing in 1600.
The first edition, printed by Valentine Simmes, includes a unique prologue likely performed for Queen Elizabeth I.
Philip Henslowe's diary records a payment to Dekker for the play, confirming its connection to the Admiral's Men.
Sources:
Thomas Deloney's The Gentle Craft (1597): This prose work was Dekker's primary source, providing the basis for two of the play's three interwoven plots.
The story of Simon Eyre rising from shoemaker to Lord Mayor is drawn from Deloney's account.
The romance between Crispine and Crispianus in The Gentle Craft inspired the love story of Rowland Lacy and Rose Otley in The Shoemaker's Holiday.
The Myth of Simon Eyre: Dekker capitalized on the existing urban legend of Simon Eyre, a historical figure who became Lord Mayor, further romanticizing his story and solidifying Eyre's image as a symbol of social mobility.
The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth (1580s): Scholar W.L. Halstead suggests Dekker may have drawn inspiration from this anonymous play for the impressment scenes in The Shoemaker's Holiday, highlighting the theme of war's impact on citizens.
John Stow's A Survey of London: Dekker used this work to incorporate specific details about London, adding historical accuracy to his portrayal of the city.
Act and Scene Summary:
Act I
Scene 1: Sir Hugh Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, expresses his disapproval of his nephew Rowland Lacy's love for Rose Otley, citing her lower social status. Lincoln plans to send Rowland to war.
Scene 2: The scene introduces Simon Eyre, the jovial shoemaker, and his witty apprentices, Hodge and Firk. The play establishes the bustling atmosphere of Eyre's workshop.
Scene 3: Rowland, disguised as Hans, a Dutch shoemaker, takes a job at Eyre's shop to be near Rose. Ralph, another journeyman, is forcibly conscripted, leaving his wife Jane vulnerable.
Scene 4: Hammon and Warner, wealthy citizens, hunt deer near Sir Roger Otley's country house, foreshadowing Hammon's future pursuit of Jane.
Scene 5: Otley welcomes Hammon and Warner, revealing his intention to arrange a marriage between Hammon and Rose.
Act II
Scene 1: The play shifts back to London, where Eyre buys a valuable cargo of goods from a Dutch Skipper, symbolizing his growing ambition and prosperity.
Scene 2: Lincoln tries to force Rose to marry Hammon, but she remains loyal to Rowland.
Scene 3: Jane, believing Ralph is dead, reluctantly agrees to consider Hammon's proposal, highlighting the precarious position of women without the protection of husbands.
Scene 4: The King, influenced by Lincoln's complaints, orders Rowland's arrest.
Scene 5: Rowland, still disguised as Hans, impresses the King with his honesty and industriousness, earning temporary protection and foreshadowing a potential resolution.
Act III
Scene 1: Eyre throws a lavish dinner for his fellow shoemakers, celebrating his success and emphasizing the play's focus on communal joy.
Scene 2: Rose and Rowland (as Hans) meet secretly, affirming their love and plotting their escape from the social barriers imposed upon them.
Scene 3: The King, attending a tournament, pardons a condemned man and offers a reward to anyone who can bring him news of Rowland Lacy.
Scene 4: Eyre and his wife Margery, now enjoying newfound wealth, experience the challenges of their elevated social status, providing comic relief and commentary on the complexities of upward mobility.
Scene 5: Sybil, Rose's maid, informs Rowland of the King's offer, setting the stage for a potential resolution to the lovers' plight.
Act IV
Scene 1: Eyre, chosen as Sheriff of London, expresses his ambition to become Lord Mayor, showcasing his continued social ascent.
Scene 2: Rose and Rowland (as Hans) plan to elope, defying the social constraints that separate them.
Scene 3: Ralph returns from the war, injured but alive, adding another layer of complexity to the play's exploration of love and loyalty.
Scene 4: Hammon, unaware of Ralph's return, continues to court Jane.
Scene 5: Eyre is elected Lord Mayor, signifying his ultimate triumph over societal barriers and solidifying his position as a symbol of London's vibrant citizenry.
Act V
Scene 1: Eyre, now Lord Mayor, sends Rose and Rowland to be married, finally granting them the freedom to pursue their love.
Scene 2: Ralph, reunited with his fellow shoemakers, reveals his return to Jane, thwarting Hammon's plans and reaffirming the importance of marital bonds.
Scene 3: The King, intrigued by the new Lord Mayor, travels to Eyre's feast.
Scene 4: Eyre hosts a lavish feast, welcoming the King and showcasing the generosity and spirit of London's citizenry. Rowland reveals his true identity, and the King, impressed by Rowland and Eyre, grants a general pardon, bringing the play to a joyful resolution.
Major Themes:
Social Class: The Shoemaker's Holiday explores the tensions and possibilities of social mobility in Elizabethan England, contrasting the lives of the working class and the aristocracy.
Love and Marriage: The play celebrates romantic love that transcends social boundaries while also emphasizing the importance of marital loyalty and commitment.
The Power of Community: Dekker highlights the strength and solidarity of London's citizens, especially within the shoemaking guild, portraying them as a source of joy, support, and social change.
The Value of Hard Work and Honesty: Through Simon Eyre's rise to prominence and Rowland's success despite his disguise, the play emphasizes the virtues of industriousness and integrity.
War and Its Impact: The play acknowledges the backdrop of war with France, highlighting the disruption it causes to everyday life and the sacrifices demanded of ordinary citizens.
Criticism:
Work and Class Structure: Scholars debate whether the play ultimately reinforces or subverts the existing class hierarchy. Some argue that Eyre's social ascent, while remarkable, still depends on the goodwill and economic structures of the elite, while others see his success as a challenge to traditional notions of social order.
Feminist Perspectives: Critics note the undervalued labor of women in the play, highlighting how Margery Eyre's contributions are often dismissed and how female characters navigate a patriarchal society with limited agency, often relying on marriage as a means of security and influence.
English Identity: The play's portrayal of London's citizens, especially the shoemakers, contributes to a sense of English national identity. Some critics suggest that Dekker's vision of "corporate nationalism," rooted in community and shared values, stands in contrast to the more hierarchical and militaristic nationalism often associated with Shakespeare's historical plays.
Performance History:
Early Performances: The Shoemaker's Holiday was likely first performed in 1599 at The Rose theatre and enjoyed a revival in 1600 for Queen Elizabeth I.
19th-Century Revival: Interest in the play reemerged in the late 19th century, with an abridged version performed at Harvard University in 1898.
Orson Welles' Production (1938): Welles' highly acclaimed yet controversial abridged production at the Mercury Theatre in New York brought renewed attention to the play.
Modern Productions: The Shoemaker's Holiday continues to be staged by various companies, including the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2015 and the Baltimore Shakespeare Factory in 2016. Modern interpretations often highlight the play's relevance to contemporary issues, such as war trauma, social mobility, and the role of community.
Other Media Forms:
BBC Radio Play (1960s): The BBC produced a radio adaptation of the play, bringing it to a wider audience.
Musical Adaptation (1967): A short-lived musical version of The Shoemaker's Holiday was staged.
Ballad Opera Adaptation (1974): CUNY's Queens College presented a unique ballad opera adaptation, further demonstrating the play's adaptability to different genres.
Filmed Performance (2015): Willing Suspension Productions at Boston University produced a filmed version of the play, making it accessible online.
Quotes:
"Prince am I none, yet am I princely born." - Rowland Lacy
"Mad lads, mad lads! Trade thrives by madness." - Simon Eyre