Mark Scheme and Comprehensive Study Notes for IGCSE/O Level Pakistan Studies 2015

Analysis of the All India Muslim League Meeting in Lahore ($1940$)

• Background of the Session

  • The annual session of the All India Muslim League was held in March $1940$ at Minto Park, Lahore.

  • Quaid-e-Azam, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, presided over the meeting, outlining events from the previous few months and proposing a definitive solution to the "Muslim problem."

• Problems Facing India in $1940$ (Source A)

  • International Character: Jinnah asserted that the problem of India was not an internal conflict between the Hindu and Muslim communities but was primarily an international issue that required treatment as such.

  • Incompatibility of Union: The differences between Hindus and Muslims were described as so great and sharp that their unification under a single central government was viewed as being full of serious risks.

  • Two-Nation Theory: The source identifies that Hindus and Muslims belonged to two separate and distinct nations.

  • Cultural and Social Divergence: They belonged to different religions, philosophies, social customs, and literature. Their concepts of life and on life were fundamentally different.

  • The Proposed Solution: The only viable chance for peace was to allow these two nations to have separate states.

Attempts to Solve Sub-continental Problems ($1945$)

• Inferences from Source B (Punch Magazine)

  • Contextual Knowledge: The source represents the Simla negotiations of $1945$.

  • Negotiation Dynamics: The source suggests that the negotiations were a slow, complex process. The negotiators (Jinnah and Gandhi) appeared uncooperative.

  • Visual Evidence of Stagnation:

    • Muhammad Ali Jinnah is depicted looking bored.

    • Mahatma Gandhi appears to be "floating above the ground," implying he was mentally in another place rather than engaged at the table.

    • The use of a chess game as a metaphor indicates that the negotiations were strategic, complex, and time-consuming.

  • British Perspective: Lord Wavell, the British Viceroy, is shown observing the game. His expression suggests impatience as he looks at his watch, indicating the British desire to conclude the process without wasting more time.

Opposition to the Cripps Mission ($1942$)

• Reasons for Muslim League Opposition

  • The Muslim League (ML) rejected the plan because the British government would not agree to a clear Partition.

  • The ML insisted on a firm, explicit promise for an independent state of Pakistan.

  • They feared that any alternative arrangement would result in a Hindu majority that would inevitably deny Muslims their rights.

• Reasons for Congress Party Opposition

  • The Congress Party demanded immediate and full control over the central government.

  • They exploited the fact that the British were negotiating from a weak position due to the pressures of World War II, demanding that Britain leave the sub-continent immediately.

The Partition of India and the $1945$ British General Election

• Impact of the Labour Party Victory

  • The Labour Party won a massive, unexpected victory in the $1945$ General Election.

  • The party held anti-imperialist views and was eager to promote Indian independence.

  • Caveats: Despite their pro-independence stance, the Labour government was generally pro-Congress and pro-Gandhi. Their initial preference was for a federal India rather than two separate states (Partition).

• Other Factors Leading to Partition in $1947$

  • The Elections of $1945$–$1946$: Lord Wavell announced new elections following the Simla Conference. The results showed Congress controlled non-Muslim votes while the League controlled Muslim votes, proving the League was an equal player and making the demand for Partition impossible to ignore.

  • The Cabinet Mission ($1946$): Aimed to create a plan for independence as a federation. Jinnah remained firm on the necessity of Partition. While the ML accepted grouping provinces if they were compulsory, Congress refused to be bound by any British plan.

  • Direct Action Day ($1946$): The ML grew concerned that the British would leave without a settlement, leaving Congress in charge. They organized Direct Action Day in the summer of $1946$. This resulted in massive rioting and thousands of deaths, raising fears of a full-scale civil war.

  • The Punjab Violence ($1947$): Widespread violence in March $1947$ convinced Jawaharlal Nehru that Partition had to happen quickly to avoid further chaos.

  • The $3$ June Plan ($1947$): Formalized by Lord Mountbatten, leading to the official Partition in August $1947$.

Key Figures and Movements: Robert Clive and Shah Waliullah

• Robert Clive

  • A general in the East India Company (EIC) armed forces.

  • Defeated the French and the নবাব (Nawab) of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in $1757$.

  • Served as the Governor of Bengal, establishing British supremacy and using Oudh as a buffer state against the Marathas.

  • Reforms: Introduced the dual system of government, civil reforms, military reforms, and the Society of Trade (abolishing the private trade system).

  • End of Life: Though made Lord Clive, he was later accused of "plundering India" (but found not guilty). He became addicted to opium and committed suicide in $1773$.

• Shah Waliullah and the Islamic Revival

  • Solidarity Through Knowledge: He believed Muslims were in a state of deterioration and ignorance regarding the Holy Quran. Focusing on Quranic teachings was intended to create solidarity and knowledge.

  • Accessibility: He translated the Holy Quran into Persian to ensure more people could understand it, as knowledge was difficult to gain otherwise.

  • Inspirational Leadership: His books and teachings provided the spiritual and intellectual leadership needed to stop the decline of the Muslim community in the sub-continent.

The Decline of the Mughal Empire

• Persian and Afghan Invasions

  • Persians: Led by Nadir Shah, they captured significant wealth, including gold, jewels, and the Peacock Throne from Delhi.

  • Afghans: Under Ahmad Shah Abdali, they defeated the Marathas at the Battle of Panipat. While they invaded several times in the $18^{th}$ Century, they often returned to Kabul without consolidating a new empire.

• Internal and External Factors for Decline

  • Aurangzeb’s Policies: His intolerance toward non-Muslims, the introduction of the $Jizya$ tax, and the destruction of Hindu temples made the regime unpopular. His expensive military campaigns (e.g., Deccan Wars) drained the treasury.

  • Succession and Governance: After Aurangzeb, emperors were known for extravagant lifestyles and fiscal irresponsibility. The lack of a clear line of succession led to instability and in-fighting.

  • The Marathas: Highly skilled Hindu guerrilla fighters who took control of Delhi in $1737$ and were the dominant power in India by $1760$.

  • British Expansion: The rapid expansion of British forces, equipped with superior technology and organization, overwhelmed the declining Mughals.

Political Reforms: Simon Report and Montagu-Chelmsford

• The Simon Report ($1930$)

  • Based on a commission chaired by Sir John Simon in $1927$.

  • Critique: It had no Indian representation and was boycotted by both Congress and the Muslim League.

  • Key Proposals:

    • A federal system with increased power for provinces.

    • Abolition of the system of diarchy.

    • Provincial governments under ministers responsible to elected legislatures.

    • Establishment of a Council of Greater India.

    • Legislative council for the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), but no full government.

• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms ($1919$)

  • Indian Opposition: Power remained largely in British hands regarding finance, law and order, and justice.

  • Veto Power: The British-appointed Viceroy could veto any decision and introduce any law he deemed necessary.

  • Expectations vs. Reality: Congress felt "short-changed" after supporting Britain in World War I ($000s$ of men lost) without receiving real power.

  • Minorities: While Muslims had separate electorates, other groups like Sikhs began demanding similar access to power.

The Partition of Bengal ($1905$)

• Successes

  • Administrative Efficiency: The province (population $54 \times 10^6$, including $42 \times 10^6$ Hindus) was too large to manage. Partition made it easier for the British to govern.

  • Muslim Perspective: Muslims believed it would end Hindu oppression and give them recognition in a province where they held a majority.

• Failures

  • Hindu Opposition: Hindus viewed it as a "divide and rule" strategy to weaken their influence. This led to mass rallies and the "Swadeshi Movement" (boycott of British goods).

  • Violence: An assassination attempt was made on Lord Minto, and terrorist activities broke out, ultimately forcing the British to reconsider and reverse the partition.

Operation Searchlight and Palestinian Support

• Operation Searchlight ($1971$)

  • A military operation by the Pakistan Army to suppress the Bengali nationalist movement in East Pakistan.

  • Directed by the central government in West Pakistan as a sequel to "Operation Blitz."

  • Outcome: Unexpected resistance led to atrocities and the flight of approximately $10 \times 10^6$ refugees to India, ultimately leading to the independence of Bangladesh.

• Support for Palestine ($1947$–$1999$)

  • Religious Solidarity: Pakistanis identify with Palestinians as fellow Muslims.

  • OIC Involvement: As a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), Pakistan promotes harmony among Muslim nations.

  • Key Events: Pakistan gave specific support following the Al-Aqsa Mosque incident and during the OIC conferences in $1969$ and $1974$.

Constitutional Development in Pakistan ($1947$–$1973$)

• Major Milestones and Successes

  • Objectives Resolution ($1949$): Laid the foundation for enshrining Islamic principles.

  • $1956$ Constitution: Declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic; recognized both Urdu and Bengali as official languages.

  • Basic Democracies ($1959$): Ayub Khan’s $4$-tier structure allowed for local elections and the lifting of martial law in $1962$.

  • $1973$ Constitution: Revived the power of the National Assembly and strengthened political parties.

• Failures and Challenges

  • Linguistic Conflict: East Pakistan resented the initial focus on Urdu as the sole official language despite their larger population.

  • Representation: Disagreements over equal vs. proportional representation in the National Assembly caused delays.

  • Executive Overreach: The $1956$ Constitution allowed the President to suspend the Assembly. The $1962$ Constitution was criticized for centralizing power in the hands of the West Pakistani military and civil elite.

Foreign Relations and Territorial Disputes

• Karakoram Highway

  • A joint project between China and Pakistan started in $1966$ and opened in $1978$.

  • spans approximately $800$ miles and follows the ancient Silk Road route.

  • Funded by Chinese money and built by Chinese engineers, it is known as the "Friendship Highway."

• Kashmir Issue ($1947$–$1999$)

  • Successes: A cease-fire was arranged in January $1948$; a cease-fire line was established in $1949$ under UN patrol. In $1957$, the UN reconfirmed Kashmir as a disputed territory that should be settled by a plebiscite.

  • Failures: War has broken out at least twice. The promised UN-supervised plebiscite has never been held. Tensions escalated during the $1987$ rigged elections and the $1999$ Kargil crisis, which raised the threat of nuclear war.

The Dismissal of Benazir Bhutto ($1996$)

• Reasons for the Second Dismissal

  • Corruption Allegations: Her husband, Asif Ali Zardari, was accused of receiving kickbacks from government deals and involvement in murders.

  • Family Conflicts: A public feud over the control of the PPP and the suspicious killing of her brother, Mir Murtaza, in a police ambush damaged her credibility.

  • Political Opposition: Nawaz Sharif organized strikes and marches to undermine the government, which intensified after opposition leaders were arrested.