Sports Psych.txt

Overview and History: (Kaleigh)

There are two camps of sport psychology : Clinical and Educational

Period 1(1893-1920):
Norman Triplett conducted the first sport psychology experiment
Norman Triplett researched cyclists and social facilitation

Period 2 (1921-1938):
Coleman Griffith is the father of American sport psychology
Developed first lab, coaching school and wrote 2 books on sport psychology

Period 3 (1939 -1965):
Dorothy Yates was one of the first women in the field
She consulted with university boxers on relaxation and technique
First world congress happened

Period 4 (1966-1977):
Bruce is father of applied sport psychology
First sport psychology societies were established in North America in the late 60s

Period 5 (1978-1999):
Dorothy Harris established the graduate program in sport psychology
Olympic coverage mentions sport psychology in the 80s
The first applied sport psychology journal was published in 1986
USOC hires a full time sport psychologist

Period 6 (2000-Present)
International society of sport psychology has a conference in China with 700 participants from 70 countries in 2013
Sport psychology is recognized as a proficiency area for psychologists

Goal Setting: (Avery):
What are the 3 main types of goals? 1. Outcome goals, 2. Performance goals, 3. Process Goals.
What are Outcome goals? What we aim for, the results. (Getting an A).
What are Performance Goals? Specific, performance- based goals (outcome goals for sports). (Outcome goals for sports basically, but study and apply yourself, show up to class).
What are Process goals? How we get there.(surprising your mom and dad with all A’s or Dean’s List).
What part does motivation play in goal setting? 1. Motivation is directly tied to goal setting 2. Research indicates that SPECIFIC goals of moderate or high difficulty are associated with the best performances 3. In other words, BE VERY specific and AIM HIGHER than you think you should aim and have short deadlines for your goals.
Research findings on goals:

Improved performance and having fun are the most important
Female athletes set goals more often than male athletes do – Why might this be?
Athletes who have multiple goal strategies exhibited the best performances.
Individual differences among athletes need to be considered when setting goals.
Obstacles to goal setting:
Internal obstacles- confidence, mood, varying or competing goals, lack of feedback
External obstacles - Stress, relationships, opponents, lack of time, work, lack of money or resources.
Other considerations in goal setting:
Enlist support, Get feedback, weave your goals together, reduce obstacles, hold yourself accountable, measure, and focus on a few instead of many.

Personality Part 1 (Alaina):

Definition of Personality: the sum of characteristics that make us unique
Levels of Personality:

Psychological core (deepest level): reflects the basic values, beliefs, attitudes, interests, motives, and self-worth of an individual. This core is relatively enduring over time and situation, representing the "real you."
Typical responses (middle level): represents how people usually respond to situations in their environment
Role-related behaviors (surface level): This is the most changeable aspect of personality. Role-related behavior is how people adjust their behavior based on the specific roles they are in at a given moment
Psychodynamic Theory: views personality as a set of processes that are constantly changing
Unconscious aspects of personality (Id, Ego, Superego)
Understand the person as a whole rather than via isolated traits
The Trait Approach: genetic predispositions and tendencies to act a certain way, independent of the situation
Agreeable vs disagreeable
Extraverted vs introverted
Openness vs close-minded
Neurotic vs emotional stability
Conscientious vs disorganized
Social Learning Theory (situational approach): Albert Bandura, 1977, emphasizes the role of observing, modeling, and imitating behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others
Observational learning (modeling): where individuals learn by watching others perform behaviors. In sports, athletes often observe their coaches, teammates, or even professional athletes to learn new techniques, strategies, or even emotional responses to competition
Imitation: After observing a behavior, people may imitate what they have seen, particularly if the behavior leads to positive reinforcement or rewards
Reinforcement: If the observed behavior is rewarded, people are more likely to repeat it; if it is punished, they are less likely to imitate it
Cognitive Processes: Individuals must first pay attention to the modeled behavior, remember it, and then be motivated to reproduce it. In sports, this means that athletes must be mentally engaged in learning from others and believe that imitating certain behaviors will lead to improvement or success
Reciprocal Determinism: suggests that behavior, personal factors (such as thoughts and beliefs), and the environment all influence each other
Interactional Approach: situation + traits = behavior
Personal Factors: stable characteristics like personality traits, attitudes, and motivations that an individual brings into a situation
Situational Factors: external conditions that can influence behavior
Interaction between situation and person: behavior arises from the combination of personal traits and situational demands. For example, a typically calm and composed athlete might exhibit different behaviors under extreme stress or pressure, such as during a final game in a tournament.
Phenomenological Approach: most popular view - interactional + our subjective interpretations of ourselves and our environments
Subjective Experience: emphasizes that behavior and emotions are rooted in the individual's subjective experience. This means that each athlete's unique perspective—how they interpret a situation—determines how they behave, feel, and react
Conscious Experience: focuses on individuals' conscious awareness of their experiences and how they interpret their thoughts and feelings
Unique Perspectives: values each individual's perspective as unique and valuable. It doesn't rely on generalizing behavior across groups, as other psychological approaches might

Personality Part 2:(Jeffrey)

Measuring personality:

It is important to distinguish between an athlete's traits and situational effect on their behavior.
You need to consider the interaction between the two in order to predict behavior in sport.

Sport-specific Measures: Three examples:

Sport Competition Anxiety Test (measures competitive trait anxiety)1977
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (measures pre-competition state anxiety) 1982
Trait-State Confidence Inventory (measures sport confidence) 1986

Problem with Measurement:

One problem with measuring state anxiety prior to competition is that emotional states fluctuate greatly and can change during the competition.
Can tests alone appropriately measure anxiety?
Are they accurate? (self-report)
How should we use them? (tests)

Testing considerations:

Should they be used to select athletes for a team?
When is an individual qualified to administer tests?
Should coaches use tests with their teams?
What types of tests should be used with them?
What about test measurement error?

Tips for testing:

You need to understand the principles behind test administration and interpretation.
You need to know your own limitations (i.e., using in-patient derived tests on “normal” athlete populations)
Understand the limits of testing (i.e., they shouldn’t be used alone for prediction, selection, etc)
Include feedback and explanations
Assure confidentiality
Use an intraindividual approach, whereby scores are compared to personal norms rather than group norms

Athletes v. Reggies (Normies):

NO specific personality profile has been found that distinguishes between athletes and non-athletes
(Morgan, 1979) Morgan’s mental health model states that successful athletes greater positive health than less successful athletes
POMS test-very popular with sport psychologists, can be overused and interpreted, however

Exercise v.Personality:

Type A personality-driven, high-expectations, urgency, easily-angered, excessively competitive
Can Type-A’s benefit from exercise regiment? YES.
Research shows that exercise in Type A individuals can significantly reduce cardiovascular reactivity to stress
Can exercise affect self-esteem? YES. Exercise and fitness levels are correlated with increases in self-esteem, especially among those with lower self-esteem

Mental coping strategies:

Smith, Schultz, Smoll, and Ptacek (1995) developed the
Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI) with seven subscales.
ACSI studies (various) found:

overachieving athletes scored higher on coachability,
concentration, and coping with adversity)
(with minor league baseball) Psychological skills and coping
accounted for significant portion of variation in batting and
pitching
(with Greek athletes) Elite athletes are far better at coping
with adversity, as well as goal setting and mental preparation

Successful v. Unsuccessful Athletes:

Use more positive self-talk
Have narrower and more immediate focus
Are better prepared for negative surprises
Prepare much more extensively mentally, which automates responses in-competition
Have better pre, during, and post-competition mental strategies
Deal with distractions better

Personality Better:
Be informed!

consider both the traits AND the situation first
understand ethics, pros and cons of tests
listen well, and ask questions to deepen knowledge
use your observational skills
know mental strategies, and be able to suggest and apply them

Motivation: (Luke) - (Cammie),
(1-13) Definition: Direction and intensity of one’s effort
Three Approaches to Motivation : Trait centered view, situation centered view , interactional view
Leadership: Leaders influence motivation directly and indirectly
Competition/Competitiveness - achievement behavior in sport or competition context
5 theories of Achievement motivation - need achievement, attribution theory , achievement goal, competence motivation theory, self determination

Fostering Achievement Motivation
Three stages:

autonomous competence (<4 yrs) Focus
on mastering their environment
social comparison (5+) focus on social
comparison
integrated: autonomous competence
plus social comparison

Learned Helplessness: the belief that a situation or an outcome is inescapable, and that one’s
actions have no effect on the desired outcome

Guidelines for Improving Achievement Motivation

Consider person plus situational factors
Emphasize task mastery goals
Monitor attributions and alter as needed
Help understand competition v.improvement
enhance perceptions of control and competence

Reinforcement Defined:

the use of rewards and punishments in order to increase or decrease likelihood of similar response in future
Rooted in operant conditioning (Skinner)

Attributional Guidelines for Giving Feedback

Emphasize need to try harder and give better effort
Attribute success to ability
Attribute success to high effort
Be sincere with feedback and praise

Pt.2 (14-27)
Principles of reinforcement:
-The same reinforcer will affect individuals differently

You must consider all the reinforcements available to you

Reviewing Reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement
Neg Reinforcement
Pos Punishment
Neg Punishment

Successive Approximations:
-for new skill development
-Also called SHAPING

Feedback (2 Types):
Motivational Feedback (Enhancing confidence)
Instructional Feedback (Improving behavior)

Behavioral Modification Program:
-focus on the specific measurement of performance
-Offer positive reinforcement
-Encourage intra individual approach to performance

Intrinsic Motivation:
Focuses on:
-learning, effort, improvement

Intrinsic Reinforcers:
Social: praise, smile, gesture, publicity
Material: trophies, ribbons
Activity: games instead of practice
Events: parties

Guidelines of Punishment:
Be consistent
Focus on behavior, not individual
Allow team to have input into disciplining self
DO NOT use conditioning as punishment

Motivation (Miles 28-40)

intrinsic motivation refers to the drive to engage in an activity for your own sake, deriving satisfaction and enjoyment from the activity itself rather than external rewards or pressures
Focuses on:
Learning
Effort
Improvement

Types:

Knowledge
Accomplishment
Stimulation

Factors Affecting Intrinsic Motivation

Need for competence
- the desire to feel capable and effective in one’s activities.
Need for autonomy
- the need to feel in control of one’s own actions and decisions
Need for relatedness
- the desire to connect and feel a sense of belonging with others

Combining Motivations

Does the combination of intrinsic plus extrinsic motivation enhance performance even more?
- Yes, the combination of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can enhance performance. A balanced approach that fosters intrinsic motivation while appropriately integrating extrinsic rewards can lead to enhanced performance, greater satisfaction, and sustained engagement. Ensuring that extrinsic motivators support rather than undermine the intrinsic motivations that drive individuals is crucial.
  Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci et al 1975)
CET focuses on how external factors influence intrinsic motivation, particularly through the lens of competence and autonomy.
Self-Determination Theory
- a psychological framework that focuses on human motivation and personality
Subtheory of Self-Determination Theory
Explains variability in intrinsic motivation
Events that affect perceptions of competence and self-determination will affect levels of intrinsic motivation.
Two components to events: control and information

Controlling Aspects

Locus of causality (what causes behavior)
- It distinguishes between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations based on whether people feel they are the agents of their actions or whether external forces dictate their behavior.
If the reward is seen as controlling behavior, they have less control, and thus less intrinsic motivation.
“Playing for the money” = less motivation

Informational Aspects

Positive information (via a reward of some kind) about competence increases motivation
Opposite is true also

Event Significance

Rewards have both controlling and informational aspects
Perception of reward determines whether it feels controlling or informational

Other Factors
Other factors affecting intrinsic motivation:

Democrating or controlling coach
Recreational or competitive sport
High league level v low league level
High perceived competence or low perceived competence
High or low perceived control over events
Increasing Intrinsic Motivation
Pursue successful events and experiences
Make rewards contingent upon achievement (not participation)
Use both verbal and non-verbal praise
OVary practices (content and sequence)
OInvolve team in decision-making (rules, etc)
Have realistic performance goals

FLOW

Increases intrinsic motivation. “Being on autopilot”
Elements:
-Balance challenge and skill
-Absorption
-Clear goals
-Merging action and awareness
-Total concentration
-Loss of self-consciousness
-Sense of complete control
-Participation is the only reward
-Time transformation
-Effortlessness
FLOW Chart
Low skills, High challenge = ANXIETY
High Skills, High Challenge=FLOW
Low Skills, Low Challenge=APATHY
High Skills, Low Challenge=BOREDOM

Correlates of Flow

Length of time: longer time=high reports of flow
Sex: no difference between sexes
Higher self-concept=higher frequency of flow
Autotelic personality=higher frequency of flow
Hypnotic suggestibility=higher frequency
Related to higher levels of performance
No difference in sports type

Arousal Part 1:(Sam)

Arousal: Physiological + psychological activity
Anxiety: A negative emotional state, characterized by worry, nervousness and apprehension
- State Anxiety: This is like a current mood, and is unstable, meaning can change in short time span
- Trait Anxiety: A behavioral predisposition to anxiety, this is stable/long-term
Trait vs State:
- Research findings indicate those who score high on trait anxiety measures also have more state anxiety in a competitive context.
  - Thus, level of trait anxiety is helpful in predicting presence and level of state anxiety.
Stress:
- Definition: imbalance between demands and response capability
  - McGrath Four Stages of Stress
    - Environmental Demand
    - Perception of Demand
    - Stress Response
    - Behavioral consequences
    - High trait and low trait will see each situation differently
  - Sources in Athletes: performance issues, self-doubts, team selection, time, finances, family, parental pressure
  - Sources in coaches: Communication, recruiting, many roles as a coach, lack of control over athletes performance
  - Sources in Students: grades, peer relationships, dating, living arrangements, etc
- Event Importance: higher importance equates to higher potential stress
- Uncertainty: higher amounts equates to increased stress
  - Personal sources of stress:
    - High trait Anxiety: predisposes perceptions of threat
    - Low self-esteem: effects perceptions of stress
    - Social physique anxiety: more stress under evaluation and more negative thoughts about our own bodies
Social Facilitation: The presence of others helps performance on simple(or well-learned) tasks but actually hinder performance on complex(or unlearned) tasks
6 Theories:
- Drive Theory
  - Direct and Linear
  - 1960’s theory
  - Performance increases when anxiety and arousal increase
  - Psyched up = better performance
- Inverted U
  - Low levels of anxiety = lower performance
  - High levels of anxiety = lower performance
  - Medium levels of anxiety = BEST performance
  - Like a parabola
- Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning
  - Two differences from Inverted U
    - Optimum performance doesn’t have to be midpoint, but varies
    - Optimum level of anxiety is not a point but an area, which is based on experiences
    - * Multidimensional Anxiety
- Cognitive state anxiety is negatively correlated with performance
- Somatic state is related to performance via Inverted U
- Catastrophe Phenomenon
- 1990
- Performance depends on complex interaction between arousal and cognitive anxiety
- Physiological arousal follows inverted U only when athlete has low cognitive state anxiety
- High cognitive state anxiety leads to passing of physiological thresholds, equaling a drop of performance
- Difficult to prove and test via research
- Reversal Theory
- Kerr 1985
- An athletes interpretation of their own arousal determines affect on performance
- “Reversals” are shifts in thinking from one moment to the next
- Best performances occur when arousal is interpreted as pleasant excitement instead of unpleasant anxiety
- Two things: interpretation of arousal is important to athletes and athletes can adjust moment to moment
- Inconclusive research so far

Arousal Part 2 (Jonah 1st half), (Cameron 2nd half):

Anxiety is influenced by traits and situational factors
Perceived control over stress is the key to interpreting anxiety as facilitative
Excessive physiological and cognitive arousal doesn’t deteriorate performance, but can cause a sudden performance drop, “Catastrophes”, that are difficult to reverse
Psyching up strategies such as self-talk, imagery, goal-setting must be used carefully, but can help reduce anxiety
Why Arousal Affects Performance
Somatic Changes: Muscle tension, fatigue, coordination decline
Attention and Concentration Changes: underaroused = too broad, over aroused = too narrow
Identify optimum combo of emotions for best performances
Understand personal and situational factors that influence increased arousal and anxiety
Improving Coping
Awareness
Self monitoring: Comparison of best and worst performance (checklist on page 274 of book)
Informal Ways to monitor: Heart rate, sweat levels, muscle tension
Reducing Cognitive Anxiety
ABC Model (Beck): A=Activating Event, B=Beliefs about that event, C=Consequences of those beliefs
ABCD Model (Ellis): A=Activating Event, B=Beliefs about that event, C=Consequences of those beliefs, D=Dispute of beliefs
Events are neutral
Beliefs are long-standing
Thoughts are short-term
Consequences are Emotional and Physical
Dispute needs to occur at B of ABCD model
Awareness increases in self monitoring; 2 days prior, 1 day prior, day of comp, and post comp
Professional athletes use more techniques than college athletes
Use more physical techniques for coping with competition anxiety
Use more mental techniques for coping with everyday anxiety
Relaxation techniques
PMR (progressive muscle relaxation)- Edmund Jacobson (1938)
Squeeze different muscles (100%, 50%, 0)
Head to toe 2 times
3 tenets for physical relaxation
It is possible to learn the difference
Tension and relaxation cannot coexist
Physical relaxation increases mental relaxation
Breathe control
Smooth, Deep, Controlled, Belly-first, Lungs-second
Diaphragm is key = controls lungs = controls heart
Biofeedback
Formal or informal
Formal: EEG, ECG, galvanic skin response
Informal: Likert scales, self report measures, journals
Relaxation response
Focus on one word, let go of conscious
Autogenic training
Produces sensations of warmth and heaviness (Schultz, 1930)
Used extensively in Europe
6 stages
Heaviness in extremities
Then warmth
Regulation of cardiac activity
Then breathing
Abdominal warmth
Forehead cooling
Systematic desensitization
“Anxiety is learned and can be unlearned”
Steps
PMR
Create anxiety hierarchy, low to high, (5-10)
Successfully complete each state in hierarchy before moving on to next
Stress inoculation training
4 stages
Preparing for stressor
Controlling and handling the stressor
Teaching coping with feelings of overwhelm
Evaluate coping efforts
Hypnosis
Definition: an altered state of consciousness induced procedurally in which person responds to suggestions for changes in perceptions, feelings, and behaviors
Coping
Definition: process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific internal and external demands appraised as stressful
Two types:
Problem-focused
Emotion-focused

Groups & Teams (Ryan):

Definition of Group: two or more people who interact with and exert mutual influence on each other (Aronson, 2022) but can also be defined by a sense of mutual interdependence
Four Problems with Groups: Social Loafing, Conformity, Groupthink, Deindividuation
Group Development:
Theory #1: Linear Perspective; progression through stages, success (then move on to the next stage)
Theory #2: Cyclical Perspective (also called Life Cycle Perspective); Birth, Growth, Death (once born, the group prepares for its own death)
Theory #3: Pendular Perspective; Shifts in interpersonal relationships, groups don’t move progressively through stages (but go through swings of momentum), conflict– resolution
Tuckerman (1965): Forming (social comparison within group; roles form), Storming (resistance to the leader and conflict), Norming (togetherness, conflicts resolved), Performing (channeled energies toward success, synergy)
Group Structure: Two important elements for becoming a team
Group roles
Definition: A set of behaviors required or expected of the person occupying a certain position in a group
Roles can be both formal or informal
Group norms
Definition: A level of performance, or pattern of behavior, or a set of beliefs
Examples: Productivity norms, Positive norms, Social norms
Roles: Role Clarity, Role Ambiguity, Role Acceptance, Role Conflict
Factors Affecting Team Climate: Social Support, Proximity, Distinctiveness, Fairness, Similarity, Interdependence
Social Loafing:
Definition: When an individual exerts less effort when part of a group than when performing individually
Factors that increase:
Output not being measured, meaningless tasks, low personal involvement, lack of group standards, being with strangers, having less ability or skill than others, presence of a weaker opponent
Social Loafing No More: Emphasize individual pride and contribution to team, Make individual performance identifiable/measured, Meet individually, Re-assign teammates to increase appreciation for roles, Break team into smaller units (less hiding), Attribute failure to lack of effort, not ability

Communication (Cece):
Two types of communication:

Interpersonal: Person-to-person communication
Intrapersonal: Communication within yourself, inner dialogue
Interpersonal Process:
Interference: Something that gets in the way of communication
Two types:
Cognitive: beliefs (long-term), views, thoughts (short-term), past, memories, biases, educational background, current mood
Environmental: location, presence of others, proximity, physical obstacles (ex. Loud place, closed doors)
Message Types:
Verbal: through words
Nonverbal (50-70%): body language, more unconscious
During competition, nonverbal communication is 66% for athletes, 75% for coaches
Nonverbal Messages:
Appearance, how you dress and present yourself
Posture
Gestures
Body positioning, proximity to others
Touch
Facial expressions
Voice pitch, intonation, tempo & cadence
How to send better messages:
Be direct and specific
Use “I” phrases
Be clear and consistent, no mixed signals
Share your feelings as reactions “When you do this, I feel this…”
Sooner is better, timing is key
Match nonverbal to verbal through mirroring to make others more comfortable
Repeat if necessary
Differentiate between facts and opinions.
Get “receipt” of delivery
Use metaphors/analogies to help the other person understand you better.
How to understand better:
Hearing ≠ Listening. Use active listening by making eye contact, nodding, asking questions
Reduce environmental interference: take important conversations somewhere private and quiet.
Reduce cognitive interference: be open minded, expose yourself to different views, cultures, experiences etc.
Ask questions for clarity, check for accuracy
Be empathetic, not sympathetic. Put yourself in their shoes
Match body language by mirroring
Communication Problems
“Me” problems: poor articulation or word choice, non-matching body language, inconsistent messages
“You” problems: not hearing, laziness, distraction, bias, attribution issues, non-verbals, lack of confirmation
Improving Coach Communication
Use multiples sensory modes (Speaking, writing, walk-through, audio-visual)
Consistent, repeated messages
Explain reasoning and rationale
H.E.A.R: Head up, Eyes front, Attend to person, Remain silent
Get receipts of delivery
Decreasing Breakdowns
Deal with team issues early
Encourage healthy confrontations
Teach accountability
Hold team meetings
Open-door policy
Be careful when angry
Avoid ultimatums at all costs
Delivering Criticism
Sandwich Technique: positive, correction, then a compliment
Stick to facts or behaviors
Don’t attack character
Be respectful
Watch non-verbals

Confidence (Arysa):

Defining Confidence: the belief in yourself and your abilities.
Confidence vs. Cockiness.
Types of Confidence:
State vs. Trait
Unstable vs. Stable
The Pygmalion Effect
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
Problems with lack of Confidence:
Lowered risk taking.
Lowered self-concept.
Lowered sense of control.
Increased chance of anxiety and depression.
Benefits of Confidence:
Builds positive emotions.
Improves task concentration.
Builds better goal setting.
Effort increases.
Performance improves.
Confidence vs. Performance
The Confidence Cycle: Positive Thinking- Risk Taking- Results
Positive Thinking:
Positive expectations produce positive results.
Pygmalion effect.
Expectations influence coaching behaviors.
Coaching behaviors affect athlete expectations.
Athlete expectations affect their own behaviors.
Risk Taking:
Most important aspect of the Confidence Cycle.
Multiple, appropriate, scaled risks.
“Discomfort”
Self-Efficacy:
Synonymous with confidence.
Sources of self-efficacy:
Imagery practice.
Performances.
Vicarious experiences/modeling.
Verbal persuasion.
Emotional states (physio arousal= heightened self-efficacy)
Building Confidence:
Focus on accomplishments. Start from a position of strength.
Act the part.
Control the “controllables:” thinking, feeling, acting.
Imagery practice.
Write down goals- what gets measured improves.
Be in top shape physically.
PREPARE!
Surround yourself with confident people.

Quiz 3 Content:

Mindfulness 1 (Ryan):
Neurological Underpinnings

Neurons and myelin
What gets fired, gets wired
Time & Firing= Insulation
Insulation= Learning (biologically)
Fear and Mindlessness
Stress reactions in humans
Acute Stress- Fight or Flight, Freeze or Submit
Adrenaline and cortisol release spikes
Chronic Stress
High blood pressure
Hardening of arteries
Oxidation of cholesterol
Lowered immune functioning
Tight muscles
Stress & Our Nervous System
The ANS- regulates the body
Sympathetic Nervous System
Mobilizes the body during stress fight or flight reactions
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Conserves energy
Does ‘housekeeping’ when at rest
Antagonistic Effects
Fear and the Brain
Stress and the Brain’s Defenses
Overprediction of pain
Increased attributions of threat to self
Hypervigilance (leading to fatigue)
Fatigue in adrenal glands
Reactive mind
Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)
Most advanced part of the brain
Develops starting in adolescence
Continued development well into 20’s
Control decision-making, attention and focus, problem-solving, and reasoning

Mindfulness 2: (Kaleigh)
Brain anatomy:

Fight or flight processing center of the brain
Located in left temporal lobe
Emotional, survival and memory
Inverse correlation re: function with the prefrontal cortex. as mindfulness increases volume of amygdala decreases, functions and volume of PFC increase
Aspects of mindfulness:
Awareness
Letting go
Non-judging
Breathing
Patience
“Time in”
Acquisition phase:
Start small, experience success
Use daily activities like eating, conversations and sitting
Be patient and remember biology takes time
Start early when energy is highest
Sit down
Do short time periods of 5-15 minutes
Benefits of mindfulness:
Decreased levels of cortisol
Lowered blood pressure
Increased emotional regulation
Improved immune functioning
Improved brain neuroplasticity
Slowed brain aging due to increased gray matter
Slowed chromosomes aging
Reduced pain sensitivity by 40-60%
Building mindfulness into your life by:
Exercise regimen
Daily rituals including eating, cleaning, showering, brushing teeth, dressing, walking
Conversations
Meditation
Yoga
Ways to be more mindful:
Describe more, judge less
Notice details
Slow down
One step at a time
Bring the senses into play
Beginner's mind
Simplify
Get rid of stuff

Concentration 1: (Sam)(First 9)

Ability to maintain focus on relevant environmental cues
Synonymous to attention
4 Aspects to sport-specific concentration
Focus on relevant cues
Maintain over time
Awareness of situation
Shifting when necessary
Focusing:
Selective Attention
Elimination of irrelevant environmental cues
Selective attention can be built via practice
Once skill is learned, less attention needed for tasks
(Bell and Hardy, 2009) External focus is better than internal(examples of internal focus are skills requiring balance, accuracy, speed, endurance, and force.
Maintaining over time:
Typical time on-task for concentration is 5 seconds
Irrelevant cues, mistakes, errors, bad ref calls, opponents play can all reduce ability to maintain over time.
Awareness of Situation:
Knowledge and awareness of surroundings and circumstances
Known as situational awareness
Affects ability to make in-game adjustments
Improves with effort and experience
Shifting when necessary
Flexibility during competition
Moment to moment
External to Internal
Research findings(Bernier et al, 2011): Professional golfers use internal focus during training and external focus more during competition
Concentration and Performance:
(Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi, 1999): Aspects associated with peak performance
Being absorbed
Being mentally relaxed
Being in a state of “extraordinary awareness”

Concentration 2 (Cece):

Examples of Dimensions of focus:

Broad External Ex.: scanning the field, calling our defensive shifts, planning a tee shot
Broad internal ex.: analyzing gameplan, strategy formulation
Narrow external ex.: focusing on a field goal kick, putt, hitting a baseball, shooting a free throw
Narrow internal ex.: controlling thoughts and emotions, imagery
Types of Distractions
Internal distractions: past events or failures, future events or failures, choking, overthinking body mechanics, fatigue, lack of motivation, poor self talk
External distractions: visual (spectators, external cues, scoreboard) auditory (crowd noise, announcements, phones, grunting, talking)
Choking: Deterioration of performance and continued loss of typical performance ability. Important situation + Narrow internal focus and physiological changes = muscle tightness, slowed reflexes fatigue
⭐️⭐️⭐️Role of Self-Talk ABC MODEL ⭐️⭐️⭐️: Activating Event —> Beliefs —> Consequences
Improving self talk: Thought stopping (imagining a stop sign when bad thoughts occur), Change negative to positive (half- paper technique), Add “feedback talk”, rubber-band technique to train yourself
Competition strategies:
Stimulate distractions such as crowd noise
Build cue word strategies (physiological anchors) Can be motivational or instructional— particularly helpful for MOVEMENT patterns such as a golf swing
Non-judgmental thinking
Have a routine, shorter is better
Detailed game plans
Overlearn your skills/tasks
Attention shifting practice
Magic Box technique for cluttered minds, especially for kids
Spotlighting
Magic towel, wipes away anger, bad performance, bad self talk
Performance interrupters like humor and silliness

Imagery(Avery):
Defining Imagery: Creating or recreating an experience in your mind
Synonyms: Visualization, Mental rehearsal, Covert practice, Mental Reps, Mental practice.
Mental stimulation or Restimulation- Using senses
Senses: Kinesthetic, Visual, Auditory, Olfactory, Tactile
Keys to Imagery:
Vividness- Exercise: imagine your room, imagine a performance
Controllability: Whether internal or external, the image needs to be clear and controlled
Five aspects of Imagery:

Modality: which sense to use
Perspective: 1st or 3rd
Angle: above, behind, below, side
Agency: Self or other
Deliberation: Deliberate or spontaneous
Why use Imagery?
Anecdotal reports
Scientific Studies
VMBR studies- Visual motor behavior rehearsal

How it works:

Recreation of experience creates a neural pathway and physiological firing in the body and brain.
What gets Fired, gets Wired
Behavioral sport-specific pathways forged.
Reactions rehearsed, meaning attached to images
Confidence improves via relaxation, improved responses, and reduced anxiety

Imagery Part 2 (Cameron)

Theories
Psychoneuromuscular-imagery facilitates learning of motor skills due to activation of neural patterns (Carpenter, 1894)
Symbolic Learning-imagery functions as “coding” system that helps to understand movement patterns (Sackett, 1934)
Bioinformational-response propositions (statements that describe the subject’s responses) and stimulus propositions (statements that describe stimulus features of the scenario. (Lang, 1979)
Response propositions designed to produce physiological activity
Triple Code-meaning of image must be incorporated into imagery
I-the image itself, as real as possible
S-somatic response, or physiological changes
M-the meaning of the image, always different to different people (Ahsen, 1984)
Sport uses
When?
During comp>training, more use before comp
Why?
Performance enhancement
Recovery from injury
What do they imagine?
Surroundings, specific images
Everyday uses for imagery
Conversations, Healing from injury, Test anxiety reduction, public speaking, interviewing for grad school or jobs, improving workouts, speed up learning new tasks, manage stressful situations
Implementing a program
Practice, set goals, determine timing, use all senses, positive outcomes
Use motivational imagery, build confidence through imagined risk taking and success, control emotional responses to situations, use to correct sport related skill, practice strategy, solve performance problems

Psychological Skills Training: Luke (Slides 1-8) Miles (Slides 9-17)

What is PST- Systematic, consistent practice of mental skills for the purpose of enhancing performance, enjoyment, or self-satisfaction.

What is it really?

Behavior Modification
CBT
REBT
Goal Setting
Attentional Control
PMR
Systematic desensitization

When did it begin?
•Soviet Union, 1950’s
•Used with national teams and coaches
•Focused on arousal control, attentional
focusing, distraction control, and goal setting

Neglecting PST

Lack of knowledge-how to teach it
Misunderstanding-nature over nurture myth
Lack of time, lack of discipline

Myths About PST
•Problem-Athletes Myth
•Elite-Athletes Myth
•The Quick-Fix Myth
•Boring, Non-Useful Myth

Elite Athletes and PST

The most successful athletes in any sport. differ from their counterparts in how developed their psychological skills are

Mental Factors in Sport

Psychological factors account primarily for the day-to-day fluctuations in performance

Phases of PST

Education Phase
Importance of buy-in
Importance of understanding “why”
Background of skills, history important
Acquisition Phase
Learning phase
Formal educational sessions
Individual educational and planning sessions
Practice Phase
Three objectives for PST:
1. Automate skills via overtraining
2. Integrate skills into training situations
3. Simulate specific skills for competition
Problems Sport Psych Faces with Implementation
Lack of credibility/conviction
Lack of time
Lack of sport knowledge
Lack of follow-up
Mental Toughness
4-C Approach (Clough et al., 2002)
Control-Handling things
Commitment-deeply involved despite problems
Challenge-threats as opportunities
Confidence-Constant belief despite problems
Athletes typically ascribe (Connaughton et al, 2011) their toughness to accidental factors (sibling rivalries, good parents, motivational environments, tough practices, rough childhoods)
Other research (Mallett & Coulter, 2011) found that coaching techniques helped determine development of increased toughness (practice types, pressure simulations, instructional & supportive feedback)
Olympic Psychologists’ Top 10
Mental training can’t replace physical
Physical ability is not enough
A strong mind may not win the medal, but a weak mind can certainly lose the medal
Coaches frequently don’t know their athletes’ mental states
Thoughts affect behavior. Consistency of thoughts=consistency of behavior
Coaches emphasize techniques over mental work, almost always
Coaches must be involved in the mental training
Sometimes it is ok to make mental training mandatory
Like other skills, mental skills need to be measured to be improved
Coaches need to address their own mental skills, just as they expect their athletes to do

Burnout(Cammie):
-Overtraining: a short cycle of training load(s) near or at maximal capacity resulting in decreased performance and inability to train at previous levels

Burnout: physical,emotional, and social withdrawal from a formally enjoyable activity

Exhaustion:
Feelings of low self esteem
Depersonalization and devaluation

-66% of ACC athletes believe that they have been overtrained
-47% report having felt burned out at some point of their career
-As volume training increases, complaints of overtraining increase
-Non sport stress makes large contributions to overall reports of overtraining and burnout

Theories of Burnout
-Cognitive Affective Stress Model

4 stages:
-Situational demands high practice time, pressure to play or win
-Cognitive appraisal- interpretation of situation as threatening
-Physiological response
-behavioral responses

Theories Continued:
-negative training stress response
-response to training emphasized over appraisals
-key concepts is negative adaptation responses

-Commitment and entrapment theory
-Athletes commit to a sport for three reasons:

Desire to participate
Believe they have to participate
Both

Self Determination theory
-most popular
-3 basic human needs: autonomy, competence relatedness
-Not having these needs can make you susceptible to burnout

Treatment/Prevention
-monitor stress levels and sources of stress
-monitor training volume and duration
-Keep open communication with staff
-Emphasize relaxation and breaks from sport

Clinical Issues in Sports Part 1(Sam):

Anorexia Nervosa
Failure to maintain a minimal body weight for given height and weight(15% below expected average
Intense fear of gaining weight despite being underweight
Disturbance in self-image(feeling fat even when obviously underweight)
In females, amenorrhea(absence of menstrual cycle three consecutive times)
Potentially fatal, always requires medical assistance
Most lethal mental disorder; up to 15% die from complications
Leads to physical issues(metabolite imbalances, heart issues, loss of muscle tissues, reproductive issues, bone loss, etc)
One of the most difficult disorders to treat due to rigidity
Physical consequences:
Amenorrhea
Low core body temp
Low blood pressure
Body Swelling
Reduced bone density
Slowed heart rate
Electrolyte imbalances
Dry Skin/brittle nails
Poor circulation
Lanugo
Bulimia
Recurrent episodes of binge eating(large amounts of calories in a small period of time)
Binges can involve 1000-10,000 calories at a time, up to approximately 30 times per week(with sweet, high calorie food)
Binges are carried out in secret
Feelings of lack of control over eating habits. Binges often preceded by feelings of powerlessness
Engagement in regular vomiting, laxative use, diuretics, or fasting in order to prevent weight gain
Avg of two binges a week for three months(for diagnosis)
Persistent concern with body shape, size, weight, and increased guilt directly after binges.
More prevalent than anorexia
Patients with bulimia are often “people pleasers”
Less severe clinically, though up to 33% can have diagnosis of personality disorder, and damage can be caused by repeated vomiting/laxatives
Patients are generally within average weight limits
Often leads to bouts of depression
People with bulimia usually know they have it, whereas those with Anorexia Nervosa don’t
Bulimia can lead to eventual Anorexia Nervosa
Disordered Eating:
Middle ground with prevalence and symptoms
Prevalence of Bulimia is 1.5% in women and .5% in men
ED’s have more than doubled since 1960
40-60% of HS girls diet
13% purge
40% of 9 year old girls have dieted
Predisposing factors:
Weight restrictions/standards in sport
Coach and peer pressure
Sociocultural factors(emphasis on thinness, comments about weight, social media)
Performance demands(increased emphasis on body weight/bodyfat % v performance in sports)
Judging criteria
Genetic factors
Substance abuse
Abuse v Dependence
A pattern of use defined by continued use despite knowledge of danger/harm, and use in dangerous situations(driving, for example) accompanied by use over a period of one month
Predisposing factors for abuse of substances
Desire to enhance performance
Desire to look more attractive
Coping with injury
Controlling weight
Desire for “escape” from stress
Building confidence
Peer pressure
Family pressure/history
Thrill seeking
Drug Categories
Performance enhancing:
Anabolic steroids
Beta-blockers
Stimulants
Diuretics
Narcotic analgesics,
Hormones
Recreational(or social, street drugs)
Alcohol
Marjuana
Cocaine
Tobacco
Detection
Signs and symptoms:
Changes in behavior
Changes in motivation
Changes in peer group
Changes in performance athletically or academically
Apathy
Poor Judgement
Lack of Hygiene
Can be positive or negative
Defined by consequences and impact
Defined by withdrawal, dependence, and tolerance.

Clinical issues Part 2 (Sam)

Anxiety Disorders
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Characterized by excessive anxiety and worry for a period of six months, about a number of activities(school, sport, relationship, etc)
Individual finds it difficult to control the worry
Causes clinically significant impairment in social life
Panic Disorder
Presence of panic attacks
Panic: “an abrupt surge of intense dear and intense discomfort that reaches a peak within minus” characterized by:
Heart Palpitations
Sweating
Trembling
Feelings of choking
Chest pain for discomfort
Shortness of breath
Attack are followed by at least one month of persistent concern about additional attacks and a change in daily behaviors(modifications) to avoid future attacks
Panic attacks cannot occur in the presence of other diagnoses, such as trauma, or social phobias.
Depressive Disorders
Major Depressive disorder
Depressed mood more often than not for at least two weeks
Markedly diminished pleasure in almost all activities
Significant weight loss or gain(5% in a month)
Sleep disturbance(insomnia or hypersomnia) nearly every day
Slowness
Fatigue
Feelings of worthlessness
Diminished ability to concentrate
Recurrent thoughts about death or suicidal ideation.
Persistent Depressive Disorder(known as Dysthymia)
Depressed mood for most of the day for at least two years
Presence of poor appetite, sleep disturbance, low self-esteem, concentration problems
No evidence of any manic episodes
Trauma Disorders
PTSD:
Episodes of actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual, violence
Directly witnessing an event
Experiencing the event
Learning about the event of a close friend or family member
Chronic exposure to details of events(picking up remains, seeing soldiers die, injured, mamined, etc)
Presence of intrusion symptoms
Dissociate reactions(flashbacks) in which individual feels events is re-occuring
Intense distress from triggers or cues
Marked Physiological reactions