Cognitive Development

Cognitive Development

Course Information

  • Course Title: Cognitive Development

  • Course Code: PSYC 101

  • Semester: Fall 2025

Key Themes in Psychological Science

  • Psychological science relies on empirical evidence and adapts as new data develops.

  • Psychology explains general principles that govern behavior while recognizing individual differences.

  • Behavioral influences:

    • Psychological factors

    • Biological factors

    • Social factors

    • Cultural factors

  • Values in psychology:

    • Diversity

    • Equity

    • Inclusion in pursuit of a more just society.

  • Perception and biases affect how we experience the world.

  • Application of psychological principles can positively impact lives, organizations, and communities.

  • Ethical principles are paramount in psychology research and practice.

Course Agenda

  • Upcoming classes will cover:

    1. Developmental-specific research methods.

    2. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

    3. Understanding how we learn to be "good."

Understanding Human Development

  • Developmental Psychology Definition: The scientific study of how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally from infancy through old age.

  • Key Question: Does development happen in stages or continuously?

    • Stages: Defined as distinct segments of an organism’s life characterized by sharp differences or discontinuities.

Developmental Changes

  • Qualitative versus Quantitative Development:

    • Qualitative Changes: Abrupt changes in physiology from one stage to the next.

    • Quantitative Changes: Gradual changes in the amount or degree of functioning.

Challenges in Studying Development

  • Two primary challenges:

    1. Measures for one age group may not adequately assess another age group.

    2. Choosing the appropriate research design. Best methods vary depending on research factors.

  • Example scenario: Studying infant cognition (memory) presents unique challenges.

Research Methods

Involuntary Responses

  • Techniques for assessing infant cognition include:

    • Looking Time: Measurements of how long an infant looks at various stimuli.

    • Violation of Expectation Paradigm: Infants’ reactions when an expected occurrence is violated.

Voluntary Responses

  • Techniques include:

    • Deferred Imitation: Assessing memory via children's ability to imitate actions after a delay.

    • Verbal Responses: Gathering data from children's spoken answers.

    • Rating Scales: Utilizing grading systems to measure responses.

Research Designs in Developmental Psychology

Longitudinal Design

  • Definition: A study where one child is assessed over multiple years.

    • Example: Follow Child A at ages 2, 4, 6, and 8 from 2004 to 2010.

Cross-Sectional Design

  • Definition: A study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.

    • Example: Assessing different age cohorts, such as 2-year-olds, 6-year-olds, and 8-year-olds in 2004.

    • Study Impact: A recent study comparing cohorts of Uruguayan children showed significant developmental losses during the COVID-19 pandemic across several domains (motor skills, cognitive development, attitudes towards learning, internalizing behavior).

    • Sample Size: Control group (n = 34,355) vs COVID cohort (n = 30,158).

    • Key Findings: Losses ranged from 0.13 to 0.27 standard deviations, especially notable in lower socioeconomic groups.

Sequential Design

  • Definition: A design that combines both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to observe multiple cohorts over time.

    • Example: Cohorts A, B, and C followed across different ages (20, 50, 80 years).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Research Designs

Cross-sectional

  • Advantages:

    • Facilitates understanding of which abilities develop at specific life stages.

    • Effective for comparisons of similar-aged groups.

  • Disadvantages:

    • Risks cohort effect if groups differ significantly in age.

Longitudinal

  • Advantages:

    • Allows for robust understanding of individual development over time.

    • Increases confidence that observed changes are due to developmental processes.

  • Disadvantages:

    • Requires significant time and resources.

    • Participant dropout rates may impact results.

Sequential

  • Combines strengths of different designs, allowing for confidence in cross-cohort generalizations.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Overview

  • Jean Piaget, a developmental psychologist, posited that children think, perceive, and learn differently at each growth stage.

Cognitive Development Definition

  • Defined as the evolution of mental activities related to thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schema Concept

  • Schemas are concepts or mental models developed from experiences.

Types of Cognitive Changes

  • Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas.

  • Accommodation: Altering existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

  1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years):

    • Knowledge through senses and actions.

    • Lacks symbolic thought (e.g., no language usage).

    • Development of object permanence leading to separation anxiety (example: Alex at 11 months).

  2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years):

    • Masters symbols but struggles with perspective-taking and understanding situation change.

    • Classification based on a single feature (color, shape).

    • Example of failure of conservation (example: Alex at 3.5 years).

  3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 12 Years):

    • Multiple perspectives and imagination utilized in problem-solving but only applies to concrete objects.

    • Successful at conservation tasks (example: Alex at 6 years).

    • Fails at abstract reasoning (example: Alex at 7 years).

  4. Formal Operational Stage (12 Years and Up):

    • Ability to reason about abstract problems and hypothetical propositions.

    • Example: Emily successfully reasoning abstractly at 11 years 10 months.

Summary of Piaget’s Stages

Stage

Age Range

Key Characteristics

Sensorimotor

Birth to 2 Years

Interaction through manipulation; object permanence.

Preoperational

2 to 6 or 7 Years

Symbolic functioning; conservation problems; language development.

Concrete Operational

6 or 7 to 11 or 12 Years

Logical reasoning for real objects; unable to apply abstractly.

Formal Operational

11 or 12 and onward

Logical reasoning for potential events and abstract ideas.

Critiques of Piaget’s Theory

  • Piaget’s stages may underestimate children's cognitive abilities and oversimplify cognitive processes.

  • Development is more continuous rather than strictly stage-like.

Practical Applications of Piaget’s Theory

  • Awareness of personal biases influences research and pedagogy and shapes our understanding of human development.

Methods Literacy Activity

  1. Identify the claim made by a researcher.

  2. Evaluate experimental design indicators based on available evidence.

  3. If applicable, define independent and dependent variables and their respective levels.

  4. Assess fairness of claims against the evidence present.

  5. Document group member contributions for participation credits.

Discussion of Morality Development

Essential Questions

  • Is morality innate?

Developmental Stages of Morality

  • Moral dilemmas analyzed through reasoning types.

Heinz Dilemma Example

  • Details the case of Heinz, who considers stealing a drug for his dying wife, raising profound ethical questions surrounding morality and legality.

Stages of Moral Reasoning Development

  1. Pre-Conventional Level (Ages 3-7): Moral reasoning based on rewards and avoidance of punishment.

  2. Conventional Level (Ages 8-13): Moral reasoning based on social ethics and following laws.

  3. Post-Conventional Level (Adulthood): Moral reasoning aligns with personal ethics and social contracts.

Parenting Styles: Impact on Child Development

Dimensions of Parenting Styles

  • Styles analyzed based on parental responsiveness and demand for child behavior.

Authoritarian Parenting

  • Low responsiveness, high demands.

  • Results in children who are obedient but may show poor academic performance and low self-esteem.

Authoritative Parenting

  • Highly responsive, highly demanding.

  • Results in children who are self-reliant, perform well academically, and have positive moral development associations.

Permissive Parenting

  • High responsiveness, low demands.

  • Results in high self-confidence but low self-control among children.

Disengaged Parenting

  • Low responsiveness, low demands.

  • Results in low academic performance and higher rates of unhealthy behaviors.

Cultural Context of Parenting Styles

  • Impact may vary in different sociocultural settings; for example, authoritarian styles may correlate with independence among African American girls.

Closing Thoughts

  • Understanding how differences in children may invoke variances in parenting strategies.

Gender and Morality Research

  • Presented through works of Carol Gilligan focusing on psychological theories and women's development, emphasizing differences in gender moral reasoning.