The Revolutions of 1848

The Historical Significance of the Revolutions of $1848$

• The revolutions of $1848$ represent a pivotal moment in European history, though they are often under-recognized by students in the United States.

• The scale of these events is immense; they affected nearly every country in Europe in some capacity.

• To illustrate their modern importance, the speaker notes that during a visit to Budapest approximately five years ago, the entire city was closed on a Monday to celebrate the anniversary of $1848$.

• For Hungarians, this date is the equivalent of the American July 4, despite the fact that the Hungarians ultimately lost their revolutionary struggle.

• The closest modern geopolitical equivalent to the revolutions of $1848$ is the Arab Spring, characterized by a rapid succession of revolutions jumping from one country to another.

• This lecture focuses specifically on the developments in France and Austria-Hungary, which serve as primary case studies for the broader European experience.

Core Revolutionary Demands: Constitutions and Suffrage

• The revolutions initially saw widespread success because they were driven by shared, albeit vague, demands. However, once those demands were met and required concrete implementation, the revolutionary coalitions fractured.

• Almost every revolutionary group demanded a written constitution.

• The purpose of a constitution was to create a document that empowered a legislative body to limit the power of the monarchy.

• Prior to $1848$, most European states lacked parliaments, or possessed parliaments with negligible power, leaving monarchical authority largely unchecked.

• Complications arose regarding the specific details of these constitutions:

  • The Right to Vote: While there was a push for a legislative body, there was almost no support for universal suffrage.

  • The idea of women voting was entertained by only a very small minority.

  • The debate over "who" should vote centered on various limitations: landownership, wealth requirements, education levels, or religious requirements.

• Democracy vs. Republic: Revolutionaries were divided on the nature of the state:

  • Democracy was associated with broader voting rights.

  • A Republic was often seen as a system where very few people held the right to vote.

• The Monarch: In several regions, there were disputes over who should serve as the monarch, particularly where various states were being merged or separated.

Nationalism and National Identity

• The revolutions were inextricably linked to the recognition of national identity—the desire for Hungarians to be recognized as Hungarians, Moravians as Moravians, and so on.

• This took two opposing forms depending on the region:

  • Fragmentation: Entities like the Austro-Hungarian Empire saw movements for independence or autonomy in Hungary, Bohemia, and other regions.

  • Unification: In Italy and Germany, the goal was to unite disparate states into a single nation.

Challenges to National Unification and Autonomy

• Italy: Efforts for unification were hindered by existing power structures. The Austrians controlled much of the Italian territory and refused to relinquish it; the Pope controlled the region around Rome; and regional interests (such as the Sicilians or the Milanese) prioritized independence from corrupt local monarchies over national unity.

• Germany: The goal was a stronger confederation, but the definition of "Germany" was contested. It was unclear if it included Austria, Bohemia, or Moravia (which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire).

• A significant point of confusion was the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. These were German-populated provinces controlled by Denmark.

• Lord Palmerston, the Foreign Minister of England, famously remarked on the complexity of the Schleswig-Holstein issue: "Three men had only ever understood the issue of Schleswig and Holstein. One was dead, another had been driven insane by it, and me myself, Palmerston, the third, had forgotten what it was all about."

• The Nature of Unity: Debate persisted over how tight a union should be. Should it be a loose confederation like the early European Union, a federal system like the United States, or a highly centralized state like France?

• Minority Conflict: Within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the push for autonomy created fear among minority populations.

  • In Hungary, the government wanted everyone to become "Hungarian," which frightened minority groups like Romanians.

  • In Bohemia, the Czech desire for independence concerned German and Jewish minorities.

  • In Poland, Polish landlords favored autonomy, while the Ukrainian (Ruthian) peasants living on their land were opposed to it.

Social Reforms and Economic Conditions

• Social reforms were a major driver for some revolutionaries but a point of contention for others.

• Abolition of Serfdom: This was a primary goal in the Austro-Hungarian Empire (serfdom had already been abolished in France).

• The Right to Work: Some revolutionaries proposed workfare programs where the government would employ anyone unable to find work. This would involve tasks like digging ditches or building walls.

• The Industrial Boom and Bust Cycle:

  • Massive industrialization led to the creation of many factories.

  • However, factory workers typically worked $15\,\text{hours}$ a day for very low wages.

  • This created a paradox where workers lacked the time and money to purchase the goods (like shoes) they were producing.

  • This led to frequent economic "busts" where factories would close, causing mass unemployment. A particularly severe bust occurred in $1846$.

The Revolution in France ($1848$)

• The Catalyst: The revolution began on February $22$, $1848$. Reformers wanted to hold a banquet to raise funds, but the government banned it, citing a law that required government approval for public assemblies.

• In response, citizens set up barricades and stopped traffic. The King of France fled the country.

• The Provisional Government: A new government was established in Paris, composed of $10$ leaders:

  • $7$ Constitutional Liberals: Focused on a written constitution and limiting monarchical power.

  • $3$ Social Liberals: Argued that the government's primary duty was to resolve economic inequality between the rich and the poor.

• Definition of Socialism: The speaker defines socialism as the belief that the primary duty of the government is to resolve economic inequality between the rich and the poor. (Marxism is noted as a specific type of socialism involving communal property, but not the only type).

• National Workshops: The government established workshops where individuals could earn $2\,\text{francs}$ a day (roughly equivalent to $50\,\text{dollars}$ today).

• While many believed unemployment was caused by laziness, the workshops proved it was a lack of jobs. Participation grew rapidly:

  • March: $25,000$ people.

  • June: $120,000$ people.

  • Waiting List: $50,000$ people.

  • Impact: Out of a Paris population of $1,000,000$, roughly $200,000$ people sought government-funded work.

The Rise of Napoleon III

• Rural vs. Urban Divide: Elections revealed a split in French society. Population density in cities led to more interventionist liberal views, while rural areas elected conservatives.

• The rural population resented the expensive workshops that only benefited city dwellers.

• The resulting political tension led to more barricades and a new election for a presidential figure.

• Louis Napoleon Bonaparte: The nephew of Napoleon won the election easily.

• Anecdote: One old peasant, when asked why he voted for him, said: "I lost my nose from frostbite when we retreated from Moscow. How should I not vote for this gentleman?"

• Transition to Empire: Although he claimed to be a Republican, Louis Napoleon held a plebiscite (a public vote) to become Emperor. The people voted "yes" overwhelmingly, and he became Emperor Napoleon III.

• One of his first actions was sending troops to Rome to suppress the Republican revolution led by Mazzini, who sought to overthrow the Pope's territorial power.

The Revolution in Austria

• Like France, Austria experienced barricades, nationalistic uprisings, and immediate government concessions, including the promise of constitutions, elections, and the freeing of serfs.

• The Role of the Army: The Austrian government realized their army consisted of aristocratic officers (anti-reform) and serfs.

• Once the serfs were granted their freedom, they lost interest in constitutional or voting rights. This secured the loyalty of the army to the state.

• Suppression Tactics:

  • Divide and Rule: The Austrians played minority groups against each other (e.g., encouraging Romanians in Hungary to resist the Hungarian majority).

  • Military Force: They used the army to fire cannonballs at protesters and those manning barricades.

Conclusion and Legacy of $1848$

• The failure of these revolutions was dramatic.

• The immense hope for the flourishing of liberalism, the establishment of constitutions, and the government's care for the poor dissipated almost entirely.

• The cultural and artistic impact of this failure will be discussed in subsequent sessions.