Detailed Study Notes on Industrialization and Society in America (1865-1898)
Contextualizing Period 6
Learning Objectives
Learning Objective 1: Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898.
Learning Objective 2: Explain a historical context for the increased international and internal migration in the United States during the period from 1865 to 1898.
Historical Context and Economic Changes
Between the end of the Civil War in 1865 and the start of the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States emerged as the world's largest economy.
Railroads expanded rapidly, more than 45,000 miles per decade, outpacing other countries.
The era, known as the Gilded Age, saw the control of large corporations by influential individuals, or “captains of industry,” who amassed great fortunes and lived luxuriously.
The rise of large-scale industries and capitalism was influenced by a mix of economic, political, social, and cultural developments.
Economic Changes
Major industries such as railroads, steel mills, and mining required significant capital investment.
Wealthy Europeans invested alongside affluent Americans in stock and bond sales necessary for industrial expansion.
New York City became a hub for businesses, housing large banks and stock exchanges, with prominent industrialists like the Astors and Vanderbilts.
Technological advances increased productivity, particularly in the steel industry, which made steel more affordable and stronger.
From 1860 to 1890, 440,000 patents were granted, initiating a second industrial revolution centered around electricity and oil technologies.
Industries sought to develop markets, facilitated by railroads, steamships, telegraphs, and eventually telephones, promoting swift distribution.
The meatpacking houses of Chicago and the steel mills of Pittsburgh exemplified industries that reached their customers much quicker.
American industries began to target international markets across Europe, Latin America, and Asia.
Political Change
Businesses prospered from pro-growth government policies that favored the protection of property rights while refraining from regulating industry.
Government measures such as high tariffs protected domestic producers and provided subsidies, notably railroads received land grants and loans, supporting their expansion.
However, government entities often neglected the conditions of workers, farmers, consumers, and urban populations, sparking debates over the correct role of government in the economy.
Recessions and economic downturns during this time also exacerbated wealth inequalities.
Migration and Urbanization
The expansion of industrial cities and westward migration attracted people from rural regions domestically and immigrants from abroad, particularly during the late 1800s.
Large influxes of “new” immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and Asia contributed to economic growth and cultural diversity, yet created tensions and conflicts, particularly affecting Native Americans.
Urbanization accelerated, leading to unplanned city growth lacking sanitation and infrastructure, resulting in poor living conditions such as low wages and overcrowding.
A burgeoning middle class enjoyed more leisure time, leading to cultural shifts including new forms of sports, music, and theater.
The successes and failures of this period prompted intellectual movements critically assessing laissez-faire capitalism and societal structures.
Reform Efforts
In reaction to economic and cultural changes, socio-political responses emerged as workers, farmers, and the middle class sought reform.
Farm organizations protested against unfair rail rates and banking practices, while laborers advocated for wage increases and rights to organize.
Women’s organizations pushed forward voting rights and led temperance campaigns.
Although many reform movements initially met with failure, they laid foundational ideas for the 20th-century reforms.
Landmark Events: 1860 - 1900
1869 - Completion of the first transcontinental railroad.
1876 - Custer defeated at the Battle of Little Big Horn.
1886 - Statue of Liberty opens to immigrants.
1893 - Pullman Strike interrupts national rail services, responding to wage cuts.
1896 - Introduction of Plessy v. Ferguson, legitimizing segregation.
Westward Expansion: Economic Development
Pioneering the West
The narrative of westward development was altered significantly post-1865 due to industrialization and the establishment of transcontinental railroads.
Transcontinental Railroads: The building of the first transcontinental railroad catalyzed western settlement, connecting the Pacific to the east, propelling economic development.
Settling the West: Initially perceived as inhospitable land or the “Great American Desert,” the Great Plains were transformed following 1865. By 1900, massive buffalo herds disappeared, and lands became enclosed by homesteads, towns, and ranches.
Negative Effects of Progress
Changes came at a great cost, particularly affecting Native Americans whose traditions and lifestyles were severely disrupted.
The slaughter of buffalo and destruction of their habitat and migratory lifestyle marked dark times for indigenous cultures.
Environmental detriments occurred due to resource exploitation and industrial rush, showcasing the price of progress.
Mining Frontier
The California Gold Rush (1849) set a model for other mining booms, resulting in boom towns that either flourished or became ghost towns once resources were depleted.
Prospectors used simple methods like placer mining before industrial setups took precedence.
Development of large mining companies led to advancements in extraction efficiency though simultaneously instigated hardships for labor practices.
The Cattle Frontier
The vast grasslands from Texas to Canada became the grounds of ranching, revolutionized by railroads.
The construction of railroads, like those in Kansas, opened markets for cattle.
End of large cattle drives occurred due to overgrazing, extreme weather, and increased barbed wire use which segmented ranges.
The Farming Frontier
The Homestead Act (1862) incentivized farming by granting land under certain conditions, but many found it inadequate due to harsh environmental conditions and market pricing issues.
Adoption of dry farming, advanced agricultural techniques, and government-backed irrigation initiatives helped those who survived the plains.
Rise of Industrial Capitalism
Economic development was characterized by the interdependence of industries, technologies, and markets.
Businesses grew through consolidation methods: vertical integration (control from production to sale) and horizontal integration (acquiring competitors).
Leading figures like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller exemplified monopolistic strategies which incited socioeconomic debate.
Reforms and Political Movements
Inciting a response against the backdrop of exploitation, farming and labor movements began to unify against industrial powers and sought government intervention for fairness.
Domestic shifts were mirrored in altercations with foreign trade and domestic unrest.
Conclusion
The period of 1865 to 1898 encapsulated a transformative era shaping American society through industrialization, migration, social upheaval, and political discontent, laying groundwork for the Progressive Era. This era experienced profound changes across economic practices, cultural identity, and urban developments reshaping the fabric of American life.