The Congress of Vienna to the Revolutions of 1848

Congress of Vienna

• Context: Following Napoleon Bonaparte's upheaval across Europe.

• Objective: To stabilize the political situation in Europe, prevent future revolutions and contain France.

• Key Principle: Legitimization of the monarchs, reverting to pre-revolution ideals.

• Fourth Bond:

  • Formed by the Russian Empire, Habsburg Empire, Prussia, and Great Britain.

  • Aimed to maintain European equilibrium.

  • Later, France joined, creating an alliance of five major European powers.

• Holy Alliance:

  • Proposed by Tsar Alexander I of Russia.

  • Aimed to defend monarchical power and suppress revolutionary threats.

  • Included the Tsar, the Habsburg Emperor, and the King of Prussia.

  • Great Britain did not participate due to its parliamentary monarchy.

• France:

  • The House of Bourbon was reinstated after the French Revolution.

  • King issued a constitutional charter, preserving some achievements of the revolution, such as equality before the law.

Opposition to Liberalism

• The Congress of Vienna tried to create a barrier against the growth of liberalism and revolution to protect the existing order.

• The Congress ensured peace in Europe for several decades, but could not suppress liberalism in the long term.

• Revolutions in 1830 e.g. Belgium's independence, & 1848 challenged the restoration regimes and promoted liberalization.

Ideologies Emerging from the Enlightenment

• New ideologies emerged from the Enlightenment, with liberalism as the most fundamental.

Liberalism

• Originated in Spain during Napoleon's intervention.

• Spread as a label for a new ideology

• Core Values:

  • Individual Freedom: Emphasis on individual rights and autonomy.

  • Free Trade: Limited government intervention in the economy; free market principles.

  • Constitutionalism: Need for a clear, written constitution.

  • Equality: equality of all citizens before the law.

• Not always democratic: Many liberals were initially hesitant to grant voting rights to the general population.

• Adam Smith's Influence:

  • Advocated for minimal state intervention in the economy.

  • Believed in an "invisible hand" where the market creates equilibrium, leading to maximum prosperity for everyone.

• Individual Emancipation: Belief in the ability of individuals to free themselves from oppressive constraints.

• Education: Liberals supported broad education to spread enlightenment ideas and empower individuals to control their own lives.

Radical Republicans

• Wanted to go further than liberalism.

• Advocated for political and economic democratization and universal suffrage.

• Believed that the government should intervene to ensure economic equality.
  Example: Robspierre and the implementation of universal male suffrage and the desire for state economic intervention.

Early Socialism

• Intellectuals in England and France developed ideas later expanded by Karl Marx.

• Often referred to as utopian socialism.

• Involved forming self-sufficient communities based on socialist principles and collective ownership of production.
  Example: Fourier's idea of "sterneries," collective complexes housing people with evenly distributed tasks.

• Most of these utopian experiments failed within a few years.

• Criticism: Early socialists criticized liberals for only liberating the bourgeoisie.

Feminism

• Early feminists pointed out that liberalism largely ignored women, who constituted the majority of the population.

• Women's political rights were not improved by the French Revolution.

• Women didn't have the right to vote.

• They advocated for extending equality to women and involving them in the political system.

• Different factions focused on:

  • Voting rights.

  • Equality within marriage.

  • Changing cultural norms and attitudes.

Colonialism

• The French Revolution initially promoted equal rights for citizens in colonies and the abolition of slavery.

• However, Napoleon reversed these reforms, reinstating slavery.

• Abolitionist movements emerged on both sides of the Atlantic, campaigning vigorously against slavery.

• Great Britain abolished slavery in 1832.

• It lasted in other empires until the end of the 19th century.

Romanticism

• Developed alongside and in reaction to the Enlightenment.

• Emphasized feeling, authenticity, and a return to folk traditions.

• Celebrated the creative individual and artist.

• Overlapped with enlightenment ideas, such as through artwork that depicts liberal revolutions.

Nationalism

• Interest in language, customs, and traditions.

• Linked to the idea of popular sovereignty, defining who belongs to the people.

• Liberalism and nationalism were intertwined, seeing the Belgian Revolution as both a national and liberal revolution.

• Shared opposition to monarchical absolutism led liberals and nationalists to unite.

• Nationalists and liberals both sought to transfer sovereignty to "the people."

• Ideologies began to take shape from the Enlightenment and French Revolution.

Response to Revolution

• Ideologies crystallized both in support of and against the French Revolution.

• Ideological cocktail emerges, challenging the Congress of Vienna's restoration.

• # Metternich Doctrine:

  • Called for monarchs to collectively suppress revolutions and meet regularly.

  • Initial success in suppressing revolts in Italy and Spain.

  • Failed in Latin America.

Latin America

• Latin America:

  • Spanish colonies sought independence after Napoleon's invasion of Spain.

  • Led by figures like Bolivar and San Martin, they aimed to form republics or federations.

  • However, the Russian Tsar wanted to restore monarchies, resulting in the Monroe Doctrine.

Monroe Doctrine

• Motivation: The Russian Tsar intended to intervene in Latin America to restore monarchies, conflicting with the interests of the United States and Great Britain.

• Proclamation: In 1823, U.S. President John Quincy Adams declared that the Americas were in the U.S. sphere of influence and that European powers should stay out.

• British Support: Great Britain, with its naval dominance, also opposed European intervention in Latin America, seeking to expand trade relations with the newly independent nations.

• Impact: The Monroe Doctrine, supported by British naval power, prevented the Holy Alliance from intervening in Latin America, leading to the formation of independent republics.

• Brazil: Brazil became independent when the Portuguese king fled to Brazil during the Napoleonic occupation and declared himself emperor.

• Key Figures in Restoration: Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Metternich of the Habsburg Empire. Tried to maintain control and suppress revolutionary movements during the early decades.

• Monroe Doctrine as a Response: In many ways it was the United States' answer to the Metternich Doctrine.

Shifts in Power

• Tsar Nicholas I: Alexander I died and Nicholas I who was willing to challenge the Ottoman Empire, supporting autonomous regions and Greek independence.

• France: French Bourbons initially granted a constitutional charter but later tried to enforce it.

• Charles X: Succeeded Louis XVIII and sought to restore the ancien régime, leading to an uprising in Paris. Revolution of 1830: Charles X fled to England and was replaced by Louis-Philippe of the House of Orléans, known as the "Citizen King."

• Belgium: The Belgian Revolution resulted in a constitutional monarchy with Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king, with recognized independence and neutrality by the major powers.

Revolution in Poland was suppressed. The impact was greater in Western Europe with France and Belgium forming constitutional monarchies and Britain introducing reforms.

British Reforms

• Reforms lead to a limited democratization.

• Wealth wasn't evenly-distributed.

• Parliament: Power was largely in the hands of landowners; consisted of the House of Commons and the House of Lords. The House of Lords was composed of major landowners.

• Corn Laws: Designed to protect local grain production by imposing tariffs on foreign grains.Benefitted landowners, hurt the poor and industrialists.

• Rotten Boroughs: Reduced or non-existent population areas, with the same level of representation in the parliament.

• No taxation without representation Americans wanted representation in the House of Commons.

• The Reform Bill: Of 1832, that reformed the electoral system.Rotten boroughs were transferred to new cities like Manchester.

• Expanded suffrage from 500,000 to 800,000 voters, approx. 1 in 8 men in Great Britain.

• Led to the abolition of the Corn Laws and the start of a free trade policy in opposition to protectionism.

Protests

• Luddites: Protested industrial changes by destroying machines.

• Chartism: Arose as a labor movement in the 1830s, with demands like universal suffrage and limits on child labor.

• The movement eventually dissolved because of divisions between reformists and those advocating for the use of violence.

Ideologies Around 1830

• The pressure for reform and liberalization was highest in Western Europe.

• Change occured via revolutions on the continent, like in Belgium, and through parliamentary means in Great Britain.

• Tsarist Russia and Metternich of Austria were able to maintain control in Central and Eastern Europe.

• Why was Metternich against the ideas of nationalism and liberalism? The Habsburg Empire was very large and diverse, so it feared an implosion.

European Spring

• Christopher Clark described the revolutions that happened in 1848 as a "European Spring".

• There was a whole wave of revolutions throughout Europe.

• There weren't always great results but there was change and some temporary results.

Revolutions

• Not so radical or successful Wanted things like a constitutional regime, the separation of powers, etc.

• They wanted the abolishment of serfdom with the mindset of equality.

• There begins what is known as Nationalism in Europe with each nation governing themselves.

Communist Manifesto

• Was released by Marx and Engels at this time.

• A spectre is haunting Europe — the spectre of communism.

• Was not large at first but gained traction and popularity with time.

Revolution in France

• The situation from 1830 repeated itself.

• King autoritarian, a limited electorate and refuses to expand sufferage.

• A violent uprising broke out and he fled to England.

• There were divides as to what should happen next; Monarchies, Republics, socialists, etc.

• Government:

  • Formed a Republic government, National Workshop to combat unemployment, etc.

• Due to these policies the Bourgeois class expressed concerns about the state of the economy. The more radical members of the Atelier began to try and hold power.

• This lead to civil and eventually a violent clash broke out between the conservative faction in gvoernment and the more radical faction.

After Math

• Thousands executed.

• Situation still polarized.

• The socialist movement still lacked direction due to recent blows.

Opportunity? What to do?

• Loius Bonaparte takes advantage of disarray- and manipulates all sides.

• Was able to gain the favor of monarchists.

• Restricted rights of the workers, etc. Gained popularity.

• Called for referendum, re-organized so the poorest could not vote. Began acting as champion of the people.

• Then proclaimed self in 1852 emperor of France, thus bringing back the French empire.

• Policy

  • New expansionist economical policy.

  • Re organize the streets of Paris.

Outside opinions

Other world super powers were not going to try and interfere because he understood how to be diplomatic.

The Habsburg Empire

• The revolutions spread to Wenen and other areas within the Habsburg empire.

• With more autonomy being wanted within all the areas like in Hungary.

• Also there were gatherings like a Slav congress wanting to reform the borders.

• The government officials realized it was all going too far and went hard pushing it all down.

• The New Emperor took the throne. Franz josef.

• Russia intervened by sending 100,000 troops marching into Hungary to suppress them.

• They would try and repair the state and focus on the economy so that the revolution would be seen as an ill idea.

Politics and England.

• To a good stable government so France exiled leaders fled to Great Britain.
  Revolution spread to Prussia as well and the king began to make exceptions but would only appease the aristocrats.

• German nationals wanted the states to unite so they all met as Frankfort to unite Germany. It was called the professors meeting and they had no idea what they were doing. No clue.

• Even after this they fought a little bit and ended up determining that they wanted a monarchy. So they went to different rulers but they both said no.

• Now what? It lead to multiple intellectuals moving to the United States, it was said to be the biggest missed opportunity from then or the time.

• The king of Prussia had his men suppress the revolutionaries. But did let the people come up with some types of rule. He would himself allow a bit of rule but it wasnt much.

The Zollverein

• At the advice of Pruisens they formed a free trade zone where no toll, or custom duties were changed.

• This would also become the future boarder for Germany to follow.

Statics Mutandis

• New ideas were being formed.

• Hard work, quantified, feelings out type of mindset.

• It means what limits do I have and what can I do.

• Science and statistic began to be used. To guide people's behaviour.

Marx Enters.

• Created scientific socialism based of fact which really attracted the intellectuals.

• Inspired Hegels concepts where there is an idea, people criticize then then a sort of connection between all ideas form an opinion. Marx however said its material with a focus on structure.

Marxist

• Political
  The structures are in large part determined and determined by the economical structure. The political structure drives the economical structure and the poor are being oppressed. There will be violence there fore. There must be a dictatorship of the proletariat then there will all be equal.

• The new generation are hard and scientific.
  International ideas: Workers of the world unite.

Why did revolution fall apart

One theory is because revolutionary leaders alienate farmers and thus Napoleon was able to use that. In other words there was social change as a result of what happened here.