Jewish, Early Christian, and Byzantine Art

Chapter 7: Jewish, Early Christian, and Byzantine Art

Learning Objectives

  • 7.1 Describe the early history of Jewish art.

  • 7.2 Explain the origins and first flowering of Christian art and architecture within the conventions of late Roman art.

  • 7.3 Characterize the early development of Byzantine art and architecture in the Eastern Roman Empire.

  • 7.4 Identify the changes in Byzantine art during its middle and late periods.

Introduction

  • Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: These three religions, originating in the Near East, continue to significantly influence Western spiritual life and are collectively known as the "religions of the book."

  • Traditional Art: Integrates Greek, Roman, and Near Eastern themes and forms to varying extents.

Early Jewish Art

  • Ancestry: Jewish people trace their heritage to the Hebrews, who inhabited Canaan around the second millennium BCE.

  • Temple of Solomon: Constructed in the 10th century BCE, this temple was built by King Solomon in Jerusalem to house the Ark of the Covenant, which is said to contain the Ten Commandments, guarded by cherubim.

  • Historical Events:

    • The Ark was lost when Neo-Babylonians conquered Jerusalem in 587 BCE.

    • Roman forces destroyed Jerusalem in 70 CE.

  • Jewish Catacombs: Six Jewish catacombs located outside Rome display wall paintings, including depictions of menorahs and the Ark of the Covenant, symbolizing core concepts of Judaism.

  • Artistic Features:

    • Jewish art often exhibits narrative painting and iconic symbols reflecting Jewish values.

Early Jewish Art Examples

  • Menorahs and Ark of the Covenant: Featured in a wall painting from the Jewish catacomb in Villa Torlonia, Rome (3rd century).

Synagogue Architecture and Art

  • Religious Teaching: Occurred in synagogues with notable structures discovered, such as:

    • Dura-Europos synagogue: Distinguished by a bench along its walls and a niche for Torah scrolls.

    • Some synagogues were modeled after the Roman basilica, featuring painted and mosaic artworks.

  • Biblical Prohibition: Synagogues contain no sculptures of living forms due to a strict interpretation of the prohibition against graven images.

Early Christian Art

  • Beliefs about Jesus: Christians believe that Jesus of Nazareth was the Son of God, who was born to the virgin Mary as described in the New Testament.

  • Historical Context: Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire under Emperor Constantine.

  • Key Events in Life of Jesus:

    • Annunciation

    • Flight into Egypt and massacre of the Innocents

    • Baptism

    • Miracles

    • Passion, death, and resurrection

  • Sculpture: Rare prior to the fourth century, primarily seen in sarcophagi or small statues representing the Good Shepherd—a Greco-Roman motif symbolizing pastoral afterlife related to Jesus.

  • Architectural Developments:

    • The rise of Christian churches began with Constantine's Edict of Milan, allowing for the construction of churches such as Old St. Peter’s Basilica.

  • Santa Constanza: An example of a central-plan church originally built as the mausoleum for Constantina (c. 350).

Artistic Examples from Early Christianity

  • Good Shepherd Statue: Found in marble (2nd half of the 3rd century)

  • Old St. Peter's Basilica: Featured axial planning with transepts, and facilitated the transition to future churches.

Byzantine Art

  • Continued Influence: Post the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) thrived, particularly under Justinian I and Theodora.

  • Hagia Sophia: A pivotal architectural achievement showcasing a dome by designers Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, known for innovations in geometry and construction:

    • Use of pendentives to transition from square rooms to circular domes.

Key Architectural Features of Hagia Sophia

  • Conches: Creating a longitudinal nave that fuses basilica and rotunda styles.

  • Dome Support: Main dome seems to hover due to large piers and is flanked by galleries allowing women to participate in services.

  • Mosaics and Features: Mosaic panels in churches like San Vitale represent Christ in powerful ideal forms.

Elements of Architecture

  • Pendentives & Squinches: Critical in dome construction to support and transition to rounded roofs in Byzantine architecture.

Iconography and Illuminated Manuscripts

  • Illuminated Manuscripts: Created in monasteries, showcasing hand-written texts with illustrations, typically on parchment, denoting prestige and religious significance.

  • Icons: Images of saints and Christ that formed a focal point in church worship, distinguishing between veneration and idolatry.

  • Iconoclasm: The destruction of icons, particularly prominent in the 8th century due to fears of idolatry, which reversed by Empress Theodora in 843.

Late Byzantine Art (1261-1453)

  • Cultural Revival: Despite setbacks, church building and renovation resumed, exemplified by the Church of Christ in Chora featuring rich mosaics and frescoes.

  • Geometric Idealism: Art incorporated mathematical conventions to create idealized figures, moving toward expressively graceful styles.

Engagement Questions

  • Investigate interpretations of early Jewish art, particularly in mosaics such as that found at the Beth Alpha Synagogue.

  • Examine how early Christian sculpture reflects Roman influences, specifically regarding the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus.

  • Discuss the role and suppression of imagery in Byzantine worship and the impacts following iconoclasm.

The Jewish book of Scripture that contains the laws of God is known as the Torah. The Torah, also referred to as the Five Books of Moses, includes teachings and commandments central to Jewish faith and practice.

An underground burial chamber is called a catacomb. Catacombs are often associated with ancient burial sites, specifically used by early Christians and Jews for burying their dead.

The seven-branched candleholder is called a menorah. The menorah is a significant symbol in Judaism and is traditionally used during the celebration of Hanukkah, though the seven-branched version is often associated with the ancient Temple of Jerusalem.

The synagogue at Dura-Europos is distinguished by its painted walls, which feature various biblical scenes and narratives reflecting Jewish values and beliefs. Among the artworks, notable depictions include the Ark of the Covenant and menorahs, which symbolize core concepts of Judaism.

Jewish law was most strict against sculptures of living forms due to a traditional interpretation of the prohibition against graven images.

The oldest Christian art can be found in the catacombs of Rome, where early Christians used these burial sites to express their faith. Key examples include early frescoes and wall paintings that depict scenes from the life of Jesus, biblical narratives, and symbols such as the Good Shepherd. Additionally, notable examples from early Christian art can be seen in sarcophagi, particularly through imagery that symbolizes the resurrection and eternal life, as well as artifacts from the early church structures that emerged following Constantine's Edict of Milan, which allowed for the construction of Christian churches.

The central aisle of a basilican church is known as the nave. This is the main body of the church where the congregation gathers, flanked by aisles on either side. The nave typically leads to the altar, and its design facilitates the movement of people during services.

A row of columns connected by arches running down the edge of the central space of a basilican church is called a gallery. This architectural feature helps to support the upper structure and provides additional space for worshippers.

At the "Last Supper," Jesus ate bread (calling it his body) and drank wine (calling it his blood) with his disciples, instructing them to do it in remembrance of him. This began the Christian tradition of Communion (or the Eucharist), which memorializes the Last Supper and serves as a central act of Christian worship that signifies the believers' participation in the body and blood of Christ.

The large semicircular element projecting from the end wall of an Early Christian church is known as the apse. This architectural feature is typically located at the eastern end of the church and often houses the altar, serving as a focal point for worship and liturgical activities. The apse may be adorned with mosaics or other decorative elements, enhancing its significance within the church's interior design.

The earliest use of pendentives in a major building can be seen in the Hagia Sophia, constructed in the 6th century CE. The use of pendentives allowed for the transition from the square base of the dome to the circular dome above, showcasing innovative architectural techniques.

All books that were once written by hand are referred to as manuscripts. The term "manuscript" comes from the Latin phrase manu scriptus, meaning "written by hand." Manuscripts were common before the invention of the printing press and are characterized by their unique, hand-crafted nature, often featuring illustrations and ornate decorations.

A book with pages bound on one edge is called a codex. The codex format revolutionized the way books were produced and used, making them easier to read and write in compared to scrolls, as pages could be flipped through like a modern book.

The banning or destruction of religious art is known as iconoclasm. This term particularly refers to the destruction of icons, which was prominent in the 8th century due to fears of idolatry. Iconoclasm was later reversed by Empress Theodora in 843.

The technique of hammering from the back to create a protruding image is called repoussé. This method involves shaping metal sheets by hammering them from the reverse side, allowing for the creation of raised designs on the front surface, often used in metalworking to decorate objects and art pieces.

During the eleventh century, Byzantium gave special trade status to the city of Venice, which allowed it to control much of the commerce between the East and West. This arrangement enabled Venice to become a key player in trade, facilitating the exchange of goods and cultural influences across the Mediterranean and beyond.

The almond-shaped area in which a sacred figure is placed is referred to as a mandorla. This architectural feature is commonly used in religious art and iconography to frame figures such as Christ or saints, emphasizing their divine nature.

In the Islamic world, the highest art form is often considered to be calligraphy. Islamic calligraphy transcends mere decoration; it is a revered art form that embodies the beauty of the Arabic script and conveys the profound messages of the Quran. Because of the religious prohibition on depicting human figures, especially in religious contexts, calligraphy became the primary medium for artistic expression in Islamic culture. It is frequently found on buildings, manuscripts, and various decorative arts, showcasing the intricate and stylized nature of the script, often combined with geometric and floral motifs.

An Islamic prayer hall is called a masjid or mosque. These spaces are designed for the congregational prayer known as salat, and they often feature areas for worship, community gatherings, and religious education.

The recess or niche in the wall closest to Mecca of a mosque is called a mihrab. This architectural feature serves to indicate the direction of prayer (qibla) and is often elaborately decorated, signifying its importance in the mosque's design and functionality.

Ottoman architects, particularly Mimar Sinan, were especially inspired by the Hagia Sophia, a masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. The Hagia Sophia's grand dome, innovative structural techniques, and aesthetic beauty influenced Sinan's designs and the development of Ottoman mosque architecture. Sinan aimed to create structures that echoed the grandeur of the Hagia Sophia while incorporating elements unique to Ottoman style, leading to the creation of iconic mosques such as the Süleymaniye Mosque and the Selimiye Mosque.

The Dome of the Rock holds significant religious importance for multiple faiths, primarily Judaism, Christianity, and Islam:

  • Judaism: The site is believed to be where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac, making it a foundational element of Jewish tradition. It is located on the Temple Mount, which is the holiest site in Judaism, as it was once the site of the First and Second Temples.

  • Christianity: The Dome of the Rock is significant as it is built over the spot where early Christians believed Jesus was crucified and resurrected. This location is pivotal in Christian eschatology and the history of the Church.

  • Islam: For Muslims, the Dome of the Rock is revered as the location from which the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven during the Night Journey (Isra and Mi'raj). This event is deeply significant in Islamic tradition and theology, making the site an essential aspect of the Al-Aqsa Mosque sanctuary.

Overall, the Dome of the Rock stands as a symbol of the shared spiritual heritage of these three major world religions, embodying complex layers of history, faith, and identity.

Neo-Confucian artists had a special interest in nature and its representation. They emphasized the use of landscapes in their artworks, reflecting philosophical ideals that valued harmony between humanity and the natural world. Through their art, they sought to convey deeper moral and aesthetic values, focusing on themes such as simplicity, tranquility, and the beauty found in nature. The depiction of natural elements like mountains, rivers, and trees often served as a metaphor for moral cultivation and the ideal human experience.

A long, narrow, horizontal painting that is unrolled for viewing is known as a handscroll. Handscrolls are traditional Chinese paintings or calligraphies that are typically designed to be viewed horizontally as they are unwrapped, allowing for a continuous narrative or scene to be revealed gradually. These artworks often depict landscapes, historical events, or poetry, and the viewer engages with the art by physically unrolling the scroll to explore its content.