AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Packet (Content)(Team Copy)

Topic 4.6: Motivation Study Guide

Drive-Reduction Theory

  • Explains behavior as motivation to reduce physical needs to maintain homeostasis.

    • Example: Eating when hungry

Arousal Theory

  • Suggests individuals seek an optimal level of arousal.

    • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Moderate arousal leads to optimal performance.

Self-Determination Theory

  • Proposes that motivation is driven by:

    • Intrinsic factors: curiosity, personal growth

    • Extrinsic factors: rewards, recognition

Incentive Theory

  • Highlights the role of external rewards in motivating behavior.

Instinct Theory

  • Describes innate, fixed patterns of behavior in animals.

    • Less applicable to humans.

Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory

  • Explores decision-making conflicts:

    • Approach-Approach: Choosing between two desirable options.

    • Avoidance-Avoidance: Choosing between two undesirable options.

    • Approach-Avoidance: A single choice has both appealing and unappealing aspects.

Sensation-Seeking Theory

  • Explains motivation through the need for novel or thrilling experiences, categorized into four types:

    • Experience Seeking

    • Thrill-Seeking

    • Disinhibition

    • Boredom Susceptibility

Vocabulary List

  1. Homeostasis: A state of internal balance or equilibrium.

  2. Yerkes-Dodson Law: Relationship between arousal and performance; moderate levels are optimal.

  3. Intrinsic Motivation: Internal drive for actions, such as personal growth.

  4. Extrinsic Motivation: External rewards, such as money or praise.

  5. Motivational Conflict: Psychological tension from incompatible goals or choices.

  6. Sensation Seeking: The drive to seek new or intense experiences.

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following best illustrates the Yerkes-Dodson Law?A. A student performs best on a test when slightly nervous. (Correct)B. A student is motivated by the desire to maintain homeostasis.C. An individual seeks social interaction to satisfy a need for affiliation.D. A person is motivated by rewards such as money or recognition.

  2. According to Lewin’s Motivational Conflicts Theory, which scenario represents an avoidance-avoidance conflict?A. Choosing between two dream job offers.B. Deciding whether to study for a final exam or clean the garage.C. Opting to either eat healthy but bland food or skip a meal entirely. (Correct)D. Deciding to pursue a high-paying job with long hours or a low-paying job with more free time.

  3. What type of motivation is primarily involved in sensation-seeking behavior?A. Extrinsic motivationB. Intrinsic motivation (Correct)C. Homeostasis-driven motivationD. Incentive-based motivation

Topic 4.7: Emotion Study Guide

Definition

  • Emotions are complex psychological states influenced by internal and external factors.

    • They differ from reasoning and knowledge.

Theories of Emotion

  • Sequential or Simultaneous Response Theories: Argue that physiological responses and cognitive appraisals occur either sequentially or simultaneously.

  • Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: Suggests facial expressions can influence emotional experiences; evidence is mixed.

  • Broaden-and-Build Theory: Positive emotions broaden awareness and encourage new behaviors, while negative emotions narrow thinking and responses.

Universality of Emotions

  • Certain emotions may be universal across cultures (e.g., anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, fear) but evidence varies.

Cultural Differences

  • Display Rules: Societal norms that influence how emotions are expressed and interpreted.

  • Elicitors: Factors triggering emotional expressions, varying by age, gender, and socioeconomic groups.

Vocabulary List

  1. Facial-Feedback Hypothesis: Theory that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences.

  2. Broaden-and-Build Theory: Positive emotions expand awareness and creativity; negative emotions narrow focus.

  3. Display Rules: Cultural norms dictating how and when emotions are expressed.

  4. Universality of Emotions: Some emotions are biologically hardwired and shared across cultures.

  5. Elicitors: Stimuli or events that trigger emotional responses.

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following statements aligns with the facial-feedback hypothesis?A. Smiling during a frustrating event reduces feelings of frustration. (Correct)B. A person’s emotions influence their cognitive appraisal of a situation.C. Stress triggers a physiological fight-or-flight response.D. Positive emotions broaden awareness and build resilience.

  2. According to the Broaden-and-Build Theory, how do positive emotions differ from negative emotions?A. Positive emotions narrow attention while negative emotions encourage creativity.B. Positive emotions encourage new ideas, while negative emotions focus thinking. (Correct)C. Both positive and negative emotions broaden awareness. D. Negative emotions promote problem-solving, while positive emotions suppress it.

  3. Which scenario best illustrates display rules?A. A person hides their sadness at a funeral to avoid upsetting others. (Correct)B. A person feels anger after being treated unfairly by a colleague.C. A child’s expression of joy varies depending on their cultural background. D. A group of friends all react with fear after hearing a loud noise.

Topic 5.1: Health Psychology (Stress and Coping) Study Guide

Stress

  • Psychological and physiological response to challenges or threats.

    • Eustress: Positive stress that motivates and enhances functioning.

    • Distress: Negative stress that impairs functioning.

    • Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Early life stressors affecting development and long-term health.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

  • Body’s three-stage response to stress:

    • Alarm: Fight-or-flight response to initial stress.

    • Resistance: Coping with ongoing stress.

    • Exhaustion: Depletion of resources, leading to vulnerability to illness.

Tend-and-Befriend Theory

  • Some individuals, particularly women, respond to stress by seeking social support and nurturing others.

Coping Strategies

  • Problem-Focused Coping: Addressing the source of stress through practical solutions.

  • Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses to stress, e.g., through relaxation techniques.

Vocabulary List

  1. Eustress: Positive stress that promotes growth or achievement.

  2. Distress: Negative stress that overwhelms coping mechanisms.

  3. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A model of the stress response comprising alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages.

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. Which stage of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is characterized by the highest vulnerability to illness?A. AlarmB. ResistanceC. Exhaustion (Correct)D. Recovery

  2. Which coping strategy involves addressing the source of stress directly?A. Emotion-focused copingB. Problem-focused coping (Correct)C. Tend-and-befriend responseD. Avoidance coping

  3. According to the tend-and-befriend theory, which response is more likely during stress?A. Escaping the stressor through avoidance behaviors.B. Fighting or fleeing the source of stress.C. Seeking emotional support and providing care to others. (Correct)D. Suppressing emotional responses to stress.

Topic 5.2: Positive Psychology Study Guide

Definition

  • Branch of psychology focused on identifying and promoting factors that contribute to well-being, resilience, and psychological health.

Key Concepts

  • Gratitude: Expressing gratitude enhances subjective well-being and life satisfaction.

  • Signature Strengths: Utilizing one’s unique strengths (e.g., wisdom, courage, humanity) is linked to increased happiness.

  • Six Categories of Virtues:

    1. Wisdom

    2. Courage

    3. Humanity

    4. Justice

    5. Temperance

    6. Transcendence

  • Posttraumatic Growth: Positive psychological change following adversity (e.g., trauma or stress).

Vocabulary List

  1. Positive Psychology: Field emphasizing the study of strengths and factors contributing to happiness and resilience.

  2. Gratitude: The practice of acknowledging and appreciating positive aspects of life.

  3. Signature Strengths: Unique abilities and traits contributing to fulfillment.

  4. Posttraumatic Growth: Positive change resulting from trauma or adversity.

  5. Virtues: Fundamental traits promoting human flourishing, categorized into six groups.

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following is a central goal of positive psychology?A. Identifying ways to diagnose mental illness.B. Understanding how trauma leads to psychological distress.C. Promoting resilience and well-being in individuals. (Correct)D. Investigating how childhood adversity predicts life outcomes.

  2. Which example best illustrates posttraumatic growth?A. A person experiences chronic stress after losing their job.B. A person learns new coping strategies after surviving a natural disaster. (Correct)C. A person struggles to manage emotions following a traumatic event. D. A person avoids situations similar to past traumas.

  3. Which of the following best represents an individual using their signature strengths?A. A student works on their weakest skills to improve academic performance.B. A manager leverages their natural empathy to improve team dynamics. (Correct)C. An athlete focuses solely on training to overcome physical limitations. D. A parent avoids conflict by suppressing their emotional responses.

Topic 5.3: Explaining and Classifying Psychological Disorders Study Guide

Criteria for Identifying Psychological Disorders

  • Level of Dysfunction: Impairment in daily functioning.

  • Perception of Distress: Individual's subjective experience of suffering.

  • Deviation from Social Norms: Significant behavioral deviation from cultural standards.

Classification Systems

  • DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders): Standardizes diagnoses, created by American Psychiatric Association.

  • ICD (International Classification of Diseases): Maintained by World Health Organization for classifying health conditions, including mental disorders.

Approaches to Understanding Causes

  • Behavioral Perspective: Focuses on learned behaviors and maladaptive responses.

  • Psychodynamic Perspective: Emphasizes unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences.

  • Humanistic Perspective: Highlights unmet needs for self-actualization and lack of social support.

  • Cognitive Perspective: Attributes disorders to dysfunctional thought patterns.

  • Biological Perspective: Examines genetic, neurological, or biochemical factors.

  • Sociocultural Perspective: Investigates societal and cultural factors influencing mental health.

  • Evolutionary Perspective: Explores maladaptive behaviors evolving over time.

  • Biopsychosocial Model: Integrates biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

  • Diathesis-Stress Model: Suggests disorders arise from genetic predisposition combined with stressors.

Vocabulary List

  1. DSM: Diagnostic manual for classifying mental disorders.

  2. ICD: International classification system for health conditions.

  3. Biopsychosocial Model: Combines biological, psychological, and sociocultural influences.

  4. Diathesis-Stress Model: Explains interactions between genetic vulnerability and environmental stressors.

  5. Maladaptive Behavior: Actions limiting an individual’s ability to function.

  6. Self-Actualization: Fulfilling one’s potential in humanistic psychology.

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following is an example of the biopsychosocial model?A. A person’s phobia attributed to genetics alone.B. A teenager’s depression results from hormonal changes, negative thinking, and family conflict. (Correct)C. A patient’s anxiety is linked to unconscious childhood traumas. D. A professional athlete develops performance anxiety from societal pressure.

  2. According to the diathesis-stress model, what is necessary for a psychological disorder to develop?A. A traumatic event during childhood.B. A combination of genetic predisposition and environmental stressors. (Correct)C. Dysfunctional thought patterns reinforced over time. D. Societal stigma surrounding mental health conditions.

  3. Which perspective emphasizes learned associations as the primary cause of mental disorders?A. Behavioral Perspective (Correct)B. Psychodynamic PerspectiveC. Cognitive PerspectiveD. Sociocultural Perspective

Topic 5.4: Categories of Disorders Study Guide

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

  • Begin in early developmental stages.

    • Examples: ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder), ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder).

    • Possible Causes: Genetic, environmental, physiological.

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

  • Characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, and behavior.

    • Symptoms:

    • Positive Symptoms: Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking/speech.

    • Negative Symptoms: Flat affect, lack of emotional expression.

    • Possible Causes: Genetic factors, prenatal exposure, neurotransmitter imbalances.

Depressive Disorders

  • Marked by persistent sadness and loss of interest.

    • Examples: Major Depressive Disorder, Persistent Depressive Disorder.

    • Possible Causes: Biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, cognitive factors.

Bipolar Disorders

  • Alternating periods of mania and depression.

    • Examples: Bipolar I Disorder, Bipolar II Disorder.

    • Possible Causes: Similar to depressive disorders.

Anxiety Disorders

  • Involves excessive fear or anxiety.

    • Examples: Specific Phobia, Agoraphobia, Panic Disorder, Social Anxiety Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).

    • Possible Causes: Maladaptive thinking and learned associations.

Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

  • Characterized by obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors).

    • Examples: OCD, Hoarding Disorder.

Dissociative Disorders

  • Disruptions in consciousness, memory, or identity.

    • Examples: Dissociative Amnesia (with or without fugue), Dissociative Identity Disorder.

Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders

  • Arise from exposure to trauma or stress.

    • Example: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

Feeding and Eating Disorders

  • Altered food consumption patterns.

    • Examples: Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa.

Personality Disorders

  • Enduring patterns of behavior deviating from cultural norms.

    • Cluster A: Odd/eccentric (e.g., paranoid, schizoid).

    • Cluster B: Dramatic/emotional (e.g., borderline, antisocial).

    • Cluster C: Anxious/fearful (e.g., avoidant, dependent).

Vocabulary List

  1. Positive Symptoms: Behaviors adding to typical functioning (e.g., hallucinations).

  2. Negative Symptoms: Absence of typical behaviors (e.g., flat affect).

  3. Mania: Elevated mood, hyperactivity, impulsivity.

  4. Obsessions: Intrusive, repetitive thoughts.

  5. Compulsions: Repetitive behaviors aimed at reducing distress.

  6. Dissociation: Disconnection from thoughts, feelings, or identity.

  7. Catatonia: Abnormal motor behavior.

  8. Trauma: Emotional response to distressing experiences.

Sample Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. Which of the following is an example of a negative symptom in schizophrenia?A. HallucinationsB. Disorganized speechC. Flat affect (Correct)D. Catatonia in its excited state.

  2. A person experiences alternating periods of depression and mania. Which diagnosis is most likely?A. Major Depressive DisorderB. Bipolar Disorder (Correct)C. Generalized Anxiety DisorderD. Schizophrenia.

  3. Which disorder involves intrusive thoughts leading to repetitive behaviors?A. Generalized Anxiety DisorderB. Posttraumatic Stress DisorderC. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Correct)D. Dissociative Amnesia.

Topic 5.5: Treatment of Disorders Study Guide

Psychotherapy

  • Evidence-based treatments focused on psychological techniques.

    • Psychodynamic Therapy: Techniques like free association and dream analysis to uncover unconscious conflicts.

    • Cognitive Therapy: Restructuring negative thoughts; includes techniques like fear hierarchies.

    • Behavioral Therapy: Principles of conditioning to modify behavior.

      • Exposure Therapy: Gradual desensitization to feared stimuli.

      • Token Economies: Use of reinforcement to encourage positive behavior.

      • Biofeedback: Regulating body responses to stress/anxiety.

    • Humanistic Therapy: Focuses on personal growth, e.g., active listening and unconditional positive regard.

    • Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Combines cognitive and behavioral strategies.

Biological Treatments

  • Psychotropic Medications:

    • Antidepressants: Target serotonin/norepinephrine.

    • Antipsychotics: Address dopamine regulation.

    • Anxiolytics: Reduce anxiety symptoms.

    • Mood Stabilizers: Used for bipolar disorders (e.g., lithium).

  • Invasive Techniques:

    • Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Effective for severe depression.

    • Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): Targets mood-regulating brain areas.

    • Psychosurgery: Rarely used today; includes historical methods like lobotomies.

Deinstitutionalization

  • Shift from asylums to community-based treatment due to improved medication and therapy options.

Ethical Principles in Therapy

  • Therapists adhere to APA guidelines, including:

    • Nonmaleficence: Do no harm.

    • Respect for client dignity.

Vocabulary List

  1. Free Association: Technique where clients express thoughts without censorship.

  2. Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli paired with relaxation.

  3. Cognitive Restructuring: Reframing negative thoughts to adaptive perspectives.

  4. Token Economy: Behavioral technique using reinforcement.

  5. Antidepressants: Medications addressing depression by altering neurotransmitter activity.

  6. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Treatment for severe depression using electrical stimulation.

  7. Unconditional Positive Regard: Humanistic acceptance of clients without judgment.

  8. Deinstitutionalization: Transition from institutional care to community treatment.