Building a Republic: 1775-1789 - From Articles of Confederation to the Constitution

Building a Republic, 1775-1789

  • Focus: From the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution; examining the transition and underlying political dynamics.

  • Key Question: How do we explain the shift in governing documents from the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution? What factors influenced this change, and who benefited from it?

Explaining the Shift in Governing Documents

  • Governing documents:

    • Articles of Confederation (1781-1788): The first attempt at establishing a national government after independence.

    • Constitution (1789): The document that replaced the Articles, establishing a stronger federal government.

  • Explanation of the transition:

    • Rejection of the "more perfect" document explanation: The shift wasn't simply about creating a better document but was driven by political interests and power struggles.

    • It was a political battle, and the supporters of the Constitution were the victors: The Federalists, who advocated for a stronger central government, successfully pushed for the Constitution's ratification.

Articles of Confederation

  • Drafted in 1777, ratified in 1781: The Articles were created during the Revolutionary War to coordinate the states' efforts against the British.

  • Issue that slowed ratification: debate over western borders (where state land ends and government land begins): States argued over control of vast territories west of the Appalachian Mountains.

Articles of Confederation: “Sovereign states”

  • Limited power of the national government in key areas:

    • Foreign policy: The national government struggled to negotiate treaties and maintain relationships with other countries.

    • Taxation: The government could not directly tax citizens and relied on states for funding, which was often inadequate.

    • Raising an army: The government had difficulty raising a national army, making it hard to respond to threats like Shays' Rebellion.

  • Almost impossible to amend (all 13 states needed to agree): This requirement made it extremely difficult to adapt the Articles to changing circumstances.

Movement to Amend the Articles

  • Some issues inspiring movement:

    • Desire for unity in foreign policy: A unified approach was seen as necessary to protect American interests abroad.

    • Desire to strengthen national defense: The weak national government struggled to provide security and quell domestic unrest.

    • Desire for a more flexible governing document: Many leaders believed the Articles were too rigid and needed to be more adaptable.

How Much Power Should the Central Government Have?

  • Different Plans:

    • New Jersey Plan: decentralized, favoring small states by giving each state equal representation in Congress.

    • Virginia Plan: Centralized, favoring larger states by basing representation on population.

    • The Constitution is a compromise between these two poles: The Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature with the Senate providing equal representation and the House based on population.

Issues with Constitution: Power of Federal Government and Representation

  • Government Power: How much power should the national government have? This was a central point of contention between Federalists and Anti-Federalists.

  • Representation: How should states be represented? The debate focused on whether representation should be equal or based on population.

  • Level of democracy: Who can vote? The Constitution left voting rights largely up to the states, leading to significant variations.

Power of Federal Government Enhanced Under Constitution

  • Control over:

    • Printing money: The national government gained the power to create a uniform currency.

    • National and International Trade: Regulation of trade became a federal responsibility, promoting economic stability.

    • Ability to put down insurrections: The government could now respond effectively to domestic rebellions like Shays' Rebellion.

    • Ability to tax and raise an army: These powers gave the government the resources to function effectively.

State Representation and Level of Democracy

  • Representation:

    • Each state has 2 Senators: Ensuring equal representation for all states, regardless of size.

    • Number of Representatives based on population: Reflecting the population size of each state.

    • 3/5 Clause: Determined that three-fifths of the enslaved population would be counted for representation and taxation purposes.

  • Voting rights restricted to white males with property requirements: Limiting political participation to a specific segment of the population.

Debate Over Ratification: Federalists Versus Anti-Federalists

  • Constitution needed ratification by 9 states: A supermajority was required to ensure broad support.

  • Ratified by state conventions: Special conventions were held to debate and vote on the Constitution.

  • Debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists: These two groups held opposing views on the balance of power between the federal government and the states.

The Federalist Papers

  • Federalists wrote the Federalist Papers to support ratification: These essays defended the Constitution and explained its principles.

  • Authors: James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay: Prominent figures who played key roles in shaping the Constitution.

Who Were the Federalists and Anti-Federalists?

  • Charles Beard's explanation:

    • Charles Beard’s An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution (1913): A controversial interpretation that argued economic interests drove support for the Constitution.

    • Prosopography (collective biography): Studying the backgrounds and economic interests of those involved.

    • Thesis: Wealthy supported the Constitution, poor did not: Beard argued that the Constitution was designed to protect the economic interests of the elite.

Later Historians’ Critiques of Beard

  • Wealthy people in both Federalist and Anti-Federalist camps: Challenging Beard's simplistic economic determinism.

  • Non-elites sometimes supported the Constitution: Artisans in Massachusetts supported the Constitution due to concerns about redistributionist movements (like price fixing). Supporting the Constitution was seen as a means to help business and petition for protection of their industry.

More Recent Explanations of Divisions

  • Degree of power given to the Federal government:

    • Federalists favored the Constitution because it strengthens the government’s power: They believed a strong central government was necessary for stability and prosperity.

    • Anti-Federalists feared that the Constitution gives the central government too much power: They worried about potential abuses of power and the loss of states' rights.

Divisions Over Level of Political Democracy

  • Pennsylvania supported the Constitution because it rolled back on the popular democracy of the 1780s: Some elites sought to limit the influence of ordinary citizens in government.

  • Artisans had more influence, especially in Pennsylvania’s state Constitution: The Constitution reduced the power of more democratic state governments.

  • Supporters of the Constitution believed it would roll back on popular democracy: They favored a more limited and indirect form of democracy.

Geographical Divides: Ties to the Market Economy

  • Rural areas did not support the Constitution: Often more isolated and less connected to commercial networks.

  • Urban and commercial areas supported it: Benefiting from trade and economic development.

  • Urban supporters saw the Constitution as a way to:

    • Encourage trade: Promoting economic growth and prosperity.

    • Increase property values: Protecting investments and assets.

    • Control over currency to aid creditors: Ensuring stable financial conditions.

Historical Context: Shays’ Rebellion

  • Shays’ Rebellion in Western Massachusetts occurred during the debate over ratification: Highlighting the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger government.

Federalists' Support for the Constitution

  • Document 8-4: James Madison, Federalist Number 10 (1787): Arguing that a large republic could prevent the rise of factions and protect minority rights.

Anti-Federalists' Opposition to the Constitution

  • Document 8-5: Mercy Otis, Observations on the New Constitution (1788): Expressing concerns about the potential for tyranny and the loss of individual liberties.

Slavery in the Age of Revolution: A Movement Towards Abolition?

  • British freed the largest number of slaves during the Revolution: Offering freedom to enslaved people who fought for the British.

  • Gradual emancipation and abolition in the North: Reflecting changing attitudes towards slavery.

  • In a mood of equality, a few southern planters freed their slaves: Though this was a limited phenomenon.

  • Abolition of Slave Trade in 1808: An important step, though it did not end slavery itself.

Countercurrents: Slavery's Persistence and Protections

  • Persistence of slavery in the South: Driven by economic dependence on enslaved labor.

  • 3/5 clause: This clause stated that three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for the purposes of representation in Congress. It disproportionately increased the political power of slaveholding states.

  • Fugitive Slave Law: This law mandated that escaped slaves be returned to their owners, even if they had reached states where slavery was abolished.

Assigned Reading

  • Jefferson on Race and Slavery: Document 8.2, Thomas Jefferson, Notes on Virginia, 1782: Exploring Jefferson's complex and contradictory views on slavery and race.

  • A Free Black's Perspective on race and freedom: Richard Allen, Document 8-1, Richard Allen: Providing insights into the experiences and perspectives of free African Americans.

Comparative Questions (Chapter 8)

  1. How did Richard Allen's experiences compare with Thomas Jefferson's conclusions about the difficulties of emancipation? How might Allen have responded to Jefferson's arguments about slavery and race?

  2. How did Jefferson's views about slavery and race compare to James Madison's argument about the dangers of majorities? What minority rights were protected, for example, in Jefferson's and Madison's Virginia?

  3. What were the principal differences between Madison's Federalist arguments and Mercy Otis Warren's Antifederalist criticisms? To what extent did Madison and Warren agree?

  4. According to the documents in this chapter, what were the most important qualities for citizens in the new republic? How were those qualities to be created and preserved? How did backcountry families contribute to or compromise those qualities?

  5. According to the documents in this chapter, what were the most important lessons and legacies of the American Revolution?

Comparative Questions (Answer One)

  • How did Allen’s experiences compare with Jefferson’s conclusions about the difficulties of emancipation? How might Allen have responded to Jefferson’s arguments about race and slavery?

  • How did Jefferson’s views about slavery and race compare with Madison’s arguments about the dangers of majorities? What minority rights were protected in Jefferson’s and Madison’s Virginia?

  • Principal differences between Madison’s Federalist arguments and Warren’s anti-Federalist criticisms? To what extent did they agree?

  • What were the most important qualities of citizens of the new republic? How were they created and preserved? Did backcountry families contribute to or compromise those qualities?

  • What were the most important lessons and legacies of the American Revolution?