Comprehensive Study Guide on Iranian Political Systems and Society

Clientelism and the Role of Bonyads in the Iranian Power Structure

• Iranian patron-client relationships and clientelism are central to how the country distributes resources and maintains political loyalty.
• Bonyads are defined as parastatal organizations unique to Iran that function as quasi-governmental religious foundations.     - They were originally organized to distribute oil wealth to regional supporters and are often framed as charitable organizations (e.g., setting up a charity for orphans).     - Because they are controlled by the government, they serve as a mechanism for patronage, directing money into the hands of supporters rather than reformers or political opponents.     - For instance, a hardliner who supports the Ayatollah or a hardline president is significantly more likely to receive funding for their charity from a Bonyad.     - Bonyads use the concept of jurist guardianship (velayat-e faqih) to justify their actions, claiming that clerics are the best-suited individuals to distribute wealth for the benefit of society.     - A specific example of a Bonyad includes a group with key holdings in various industrial sectors, though its official status remains a religious foundation.
• Comparative Perspectives on Bonyads:     - China: Bonyads are compared to GONGOs (Government-Organized Non-Governmental Organizations). These are organizations that appear to be independent but are actually controlled by the state to manage social and economic functions.     - Nigeria: While related to the concept of prebendalism—where leaders use state resources for the benefit of their ethnic or religious supporters—Bonyads differ because they are formal organizations, whereas prebendalism is a broader conceptual phenomenon. These processes can also be loosely linked to kleptocracy.

The Legislative and Oversight Councils: Guardian, Expediency, and Assembly

• Guardian Council:     - Often described as the "watchdogs" of the Iranian system.     - Functions: They vet and approve all candidates for office and review all laws passed by the legislature to ensure they align with Sharia law.     - Composition: The council consists of six members appointed by the Supreme Leader and six members nominated by the judiciary.     - Approval Process: The members nominated by the judiciary must be approved by the Majlis (The Islamic Consultative Assembly).     - Lack of Transparency: There is no transparent process or objective criteria for how the council vets candidates. No external body exists to check their power or ensure "free and fair" vetting.
• Expediency Council:     - Composed of members entirely appointed by the Supreme Leader.     - It is not an official branch or a house of the legislature but effectively acts as an "upper house."     - Purpose: To expedite the legislative process (make it more efficient) when there is a disagreement between the Majlis (the unicameral parliament) and the Guardian Council.     - Decision-Making: Instead of laws moving back and forth between houses for debate, the Expediency Council hears both sides and issues a final, binding decision.     - Historical Context: It was formed in $1989$ following the death of Ayatollah Khomeini. During Khomeini's life, he held absolute power and resolved disputes personally. After his death, the need arose for a group to facilitate rule because the future of the leadership was initially unclear.
• Assembly of Experts:     - Consists of $88$ clerics (previously cited as $86$ in older materials).     - They are elected by the public every $8$ years.     - Role: Nominally responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader and selecting or dismissing him. In practice, they have never dismissed a Supreme Leader.     - Qualifications: Since $1988$, members do not strictly have to be clerics, but they must be "Muslim experts," typically meaning they hold advanced degrees in the Quran or Islamic law.

The Dual Executive and Internal Governance

• Iran operates under a theocratic semi-presidential system:     - Theocratic Element: Represented by the Supreme Leader, who serves as the Head of State.     - Semi-Presidential Element: Represented by the President, who serves as the Head of Government.
• The President:     - Elected every $4$ years and can serve up to two consecutive terms.     - The president possesses more "parliamentary powers" than typical executive powers found in a presidential system.     - The president oversees a massive bureaucracy and a cabinet of $21$ ministers.
• Internal Structure and Unitary System:     - Iran is a unitary system, meaning power is concentrated in the central government.     - However, it practices devolution of powers through the existence of local government and governors.     - Provincial Representatives: These are local leaders ensuring that local practices align with the Quran.     - Friday Prayer Leaders: Religious figures who ensure practitioners follow proper Islamic conduct.

Legal Framework and Human Rights

• Legal System: Based entirely on Sharia Law.     - Unlike Nigeria, which has a mix of Sharia, code law, and common law, Iran is strictly Sharia-based.     - The system practices rule by law rather than the rule of law, meaning the government uses the law to exercise power rather than being bound by it.     - There is no judicial independence, as the judiciary is overseen by an Ayatollah and all appointments are tied to the Supreme Leader.     - The legal system focuses on "religious review" rather than "judicial review."
• Human Rights: There has been a pattern of detaining human rights activists, following a hardline approach rather than a reformist one.
• Status of Women: In Iran, Sharia law often includes "male guardianship," where a male relative makes major decisions for a woman. Legal marriage ages can be as low as $13$, and it can be lower (e.g., $10$) if a guardian approves. Some restrictions prevent women from appearing in public without an escort.

Military and Media Oversight

• Military Forces:     - Iran possesses the $8^{th}$ largest military in the world.     - The military is deeply integrated with the executive branch, a common characteristic of authoritarian regimes (similar to China's People's Liberation Army).     - The Army: Primarily responsible for border defense.     - Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC): The most powerful branch. They defend the government itself and are active in policy-making, the media, and the nuclear program.     - Basij: A civilian or citizen militia that acts as a police force/militia to maintain local order.
• Media:     - Controlled by the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB).     - The media is directly under the authority of the Supreme Leader, highlighting the totalitarian nature of the state's reach.

Historical and Ideological Foundations

• 1979 National Referendum:     - A public vote that increased the government's legitimacy.     - It officially removed the Shah (Shahanshah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi) from power and established the Islamic Republic.
• Jurist Guardianship (Velayat-e faqih):     - Historically, the idea that clerics should care for the unfortunate in society.     - Khomeini broadened this to mean clerics have the authority to manage all society and ensure the proper moral and social path for the country.     - This is compared to the British concept of $\text{Noblesse Oblige}$, where the aristocracy felt a duty to care for the commoners, which eventually evolved into the modern welfare state.
• Cultural Revolution:     - Modeled after Mao Zedong in China.     - Aimed to purge Western influences and establish absolute sovereignty.     - Involved the purging of universities of "liberal thinking" and intellectual opposition to ensure university education aligned with state ideology.

Demographic Shifts and Civil Society Challenges

• Population Pyramid:     - Iran has an exceptionally young population compared to countries like the UK.     - Political Implications: Younger Iranians did not live through the 1979 revolution and feel less connection to the Ayatollah or the original Islamic constitution. They are generally more secular and connected to global Western trends (music, fashion, social media).     - Propensity for Reform: This youth demographic is the most likely to protest and demand reform. However, they face high unemployment rates (statistics from $2015$ highlight youth unemployment for ages $15\text{ to }21$).
• The "Strangulation" of Civil Society:     - Khatami Era ($1997-2005$): A time of "flowering" for civil society, journalism, and human rights activism.     - Ahmadinejad Era ($2005-2013$): Marked by a massive crackdown, particularly after the disputed $2009$ elections. Thousands were imprisoned, tortured in secret facilities, and sentenced to long terms in "revolutionary courts."     - Sattar Beheshti: A young blogger who died in state detention in $2012$ after reporting being tortured. His death led to international outrage and investigations by groups like Human Rights Watch.     - Brain Drain: The crackdown has caused a "slow strangulation" where intellectuals and activists flee the country, seeking asylum through the UNHCR (between $11,000\text{ and }18,000$ people annually).

International Factors: Sanctions and OPEC

• Nuclear Tensions: The UN and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have historically struggled to get weapons inspectors into Iran. Tensions exist over the grade of uranium Iran imports; weapons-grade uranium is required for nuclear armaments, whereas a different grade is used for energy production.
• Sanctions: Broad-based trade sanctions often hurt ordinary citizens and the middle class (causing inflation and blocking medical supplies) rather than the intended high-ranking officials. Human rights groups often advocate for "targeted sanctions" against specific individuals in the security forces.
• OPEC and Regional Power: Iran is a major oil exporter and a key member of OPEC. Recently, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) announced its departure from OPEC, which may destabilize the organization and shift the power balance between Iran and its rival, Saudi Arabia.

Questions & Discussion

• Student Question: What is the name of those foundations again?   - Instructor Response: Bonyads. They are para-statals and they are unique to Iran.
• Student Question: You mentioned the wealth is different, but there are similarities to other countries. What about Nigeria?   - Instructor Response: It's loosely connected to Nigeria's prebendalism. Bonyads are the organizations themselves, while prebendalism is the concept of using oil wealth to benefit supporters.
• Student Question: Are the organizations in China different?   - Instructor Response: Yes, in China they are called GONGOs. Bonyads are also a way for supporters to enrich themselves, which is a commonality.
• Student Question: Why would an authoritarian government block social media?   - Instructor Response: Because world trends (movies, music, fashion) come from the Western world. These trends can carry democratic ideas that threaten the regime.
• Student Question: Why are Iranians in other countries cheering for protests or conflict back home?   - Instructor Response: Because they left for a reason. They aren't happy about the violence, but they are happy that the international community is finally noticing the problems they escaped, such as the crackdown after the Ahmadinejad re-election.
• Student Question: Does international pressure work?   - Instructor Response: It works to a certain extent through targeted sanctions, but many ordinary Iranians complain that broad sanctions hurt the people more than the government leaders.
• Student Question: Are women in the US also affected by Sharia law? Does Iran send people?   - Instructor Response: No, Sharia law applies within the specific nations like Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Afghanistan. Many Middle Eastern women actually want to wear the hijab as part of their belief system; it's a matter of conviction for them.