Second Urbanization of India: Cities, States, and Society

Historical Context and the First vs. Second Urbanization of India

• The study of Indian urbanism begins with the Indus and Sarasvati basins, often referred to as the 'First Urbanization of India'.
• Following the decline of the Indus-Sarasvati Civilization, there was a notable absence of substantial urban settlements during the Vedic Age, spanning from approximately $1500$ to $600\,BCE$.
• A renewed phase of urban growth, known as the Second Urbanization of India, began from the sixth century $BCE$ onwards.
• While some urban centers emerged in the Indus and Sarasvati basins, the majority of these new cities and towns were concentrated across the upper, middle, and lower Gangetic plains.
• Historical understanding posits that rural and urban areas are fundamentally interdependent; cities cannot be understood without their rural hinterlands, just as rural areas cannot be understood without their links to the cities.

Principal Sources of Information

• Literary Sources:
  • Vedic Texts: These include the Brahmanas (distinct from the Brahmin caste) and the Upanishads.
  • Buddhist Texts: Specifically mentions the Tripitaka.
• Archaeological Sources:
  • Pottery: A distinctive type known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is characteristic of this period.
  • Material Remains: These include coins, the ruins of ancient cities, and various other physical artifacts.

Characteristics and Definition of Urban Settlements

• General Definition: Urbanization is the process where the percentage of people living in towns and cities increases. In a historical sense, it describes how new settlement types (cities/towns) emerge from a rural base or region.
• Defining Features: Scholars use specific guidelines to distinguish urban settlements from rural ones, including:
  • Higher population density and larger overall settlement size.
  • The presence of specialized occupations beyond farming.
  • The existence of an agricultural surplus.
  • The construction of monuments and fortifications.
  • Organized political structures and a clearly defined ruling class.
  • Systems of writing, trade, and currency.
  • Uniform weights and measures.
  • Clear social stratification.
• Comparative Note: Cities separated by vast time and space, such as Harappa and London, share these fundamental urban characteristics despite their surface differences.
• Scholarly Debate: It is noted that there is no single, universally accepted definition of a city or town; these characteristics serve as useful guidelines rather than strict criteria.

The Causes of the Second Urbanization

• Technological and Agricultural Factors:
  • Iron Technology: The introduction of the iron axe, iron ploughs, and other tools allowed for clearing dense forests and preparing hard soil, bringing more land under cultivation. The iron ploughshare was particularly essential for deep ploughing in difficult soils.
  • Multi-cropping: The introduction of multi-cropping techniques shifted communities from a mix of agriculture, pastoralism, and hunting-gathering to year-round farming.
  • Surplus and Specialization: This transition increased agricultural surplus, which allowed individuals to pursue non-agricultural professions on a full-time basis.
• Alternative Historical Viewpoints:
  • Some historians argue that agricultural foundations were already set during the Chalcolithic period.
  • They suggest that the rise of strong kingdoms in the fertile Gangetic plain was the primary driver of urban growth, rather than technological advancements being the sole cause.

Evolution of Political Entities: From Janas to Mahajanapadas

• Janas: During the early Vedic period, Indo-Aryans were divided into tribes called janas. As they settled permanently, they claimed possession of specific regions, giving themselves a geographical identity (e.g., the Kuru region named after the Kuru tribe).
• Janapadas: Between $1000$ and $700\,BCE$, tribes began to integrate into larger entities. While some like the Bharatas remained powerful, others like the Kurus and Panchalas merged to form the Kuru-Panchala. These developing kingdoms were known as janapadas. Notable early janapadas include Kashi, Videha, and Kosala.
• Mahajanapadas: By the sixth century $BCE$, some janapadas expanded to become mahajanapadas. Source texts identify $16$ mahajanapadas, most located in the Ganga valley. Each had a capital city, usually fortified with massive stone or brick walls to resist attacks.

Systems of Governance: Monarchies and Gana-sanghas

• Monarchical Mahajanapadas:
  • Ruled by a powerful, hereditary king.
  • The king controlled a large army and had numerous revenue sources.
  • Key examples include Magadha (the most powerful), Vatsa, Avanti, and Kosala.
• Non-Monarchical Mahajanapadas (Gana-sanghas or Oligarchies):
  • Led by a chief known as a ganapati, ganaraja, or sanghamukhya, who was elected or appointed by an elite group of Kshatriyas.
  • Types of Gana-sanghas:
  • Single-clan entities (e.g., the Sakyas).
  • Confederations of multiple clans (e.g., the Vajji).
  • The Vajji Confederacy: A confederacy of nine clans, with the Vajjis and Lichchhavis being the most powerful. Their capital was Vaishali (present-day Bihar). A key chief, Chetaka, made decisions in consultation with the heads of the nine clans.
• Historical Interpretation: In the $1950s$, some historians called these "ancient Indian democracies." However, modern scholars prefer the term "oligarchy" because power was restricted to a small elite group of Kshatriya clan heads rather than the general population.

Social Stratification and the Varna System

• Varna Hierarchy: During the Vedic Age, society was structured into four varnas based on birth:
  • Brahmins: Expected to teach the Vedas and perform religious duties/sacrifices. Ranked as the most powerful/status-heavy.
  • Kshatriyas: Warriors and rulers.
  • Vaishyas: Engaged in trade and agriculture.
  • Shudras: Served the other three varnas; ranked as the least powerful within the four-fold system.
• The Untouchables: References from the Later Vedic Age identify a group outside the varna order, ranked lower than the Shudras. They were regarded as having a "polluting" effect on society.
• Societal Rigidities: While marriages across varna boundaries occurred, they were criticized. Marginalization also existed based on wealth and gender; women, especially those in lower castes, faced multiple layers of oppression.

The Emergence and Characteristics of Jatis

• Definition: A jati (caste) is a social group whose members share a common ancestor, marry within the group (endogamy), and are often associated with a specific occupation (e.g., metalworkers, barbers, sculptors).
• Development of Jatis:
  • Unlike the four varnas, jatis are numerous and cannot be easily counted.
  • Varna-samkara Theory: One explanation for the rise of jatis is the intermixing of varnas through marriage, which blurred traditional divisions and led to the creation of jatis to reinforce the separation of "pure" and "impure."
  • Other factors include the incorporation of forest-dwelling people into society (mostly into lower jatis) and the desire to maintain the hereditary nature of professional occupations.
• Modern Legal Context: The caste system remained firm for centuries until the Indian Constitution of 1950 prohibited discrimination based on religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth, establishing the Right to Equality as a Fundamental Right.

Economy: Trade Routes and Coinage

• Inland Trade Routes:
  • Uttarapatha (Northern Route): Extended from present-day Afghanistan, across the Indo-Gangetic Plains, to the port of Tamralipti on the Bay of Bengal. Significant for the exchange of silver.
  • Dakshinapatha (Southern Route): Extended from Pataliputra (present-day Bihar) to Pratishthana (present-day Maharashtra). This route facilitated the exchange of raw materials like iron, copper, and stone from the Vindhyas.
  • The two routes converged near Varanasi (present-day Uttar Pradesh).
• Patterns of Urban Growth: Cities grew through village expansion, independent urban emergence supported by rural surplus, or around trade and craft centers where artisans organized into groups.
• Introduction of Currency: Trade shifted from barter to the use of punch-marked coins made of silver and copper. These coins featured unique combinations of symbols marked on the obverse (front) and reverse (back) sides.

Case Study: Arikamedu and Global Trade

• Location: An archaeological site near Puducherry, excavated in the $1940s$ by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.
• Significance: A major port town and bead-making center that flourished around $200\,BCE$.
• Roman Trade: The site features evidence of thriving trade with the Roman Empire.
  • Exports: Textiles, beads, semi-precious stones, and glass-shell bangles.
  • Imports: Wine and olive oil.
  • Archaeological Finds: Roman pottery (jars/vases), Roman gold coins, and the ruins of a brick building hypothesized to be a warehouse.

Questions & Discussion

• Political Analysis:
  • Question: Which form of government, republican or monarchical, was better suited to those times? Why?
  • Context: Students are asked to reflect on the nature of the gana-sanghas and whether a system where power is restricted to few clans can truly be called a democracy.
• Geographical Identification:
  • Task: Identify which mahajanapadas lie in modern India and name the present-day states they correspond to (e.g., Magadha and Vajji in Bihar).
• Archaeological Inquiry:
  • Task: Why were the coins of this period called punch-marked coins?
  • Answer: The term comes from the process of making the coins by punching symbols into the metal surface using dies.**