Ottoman Empire

In the late thirteenth century, Osman I established a small beylik (principality) in modern-day Turkey.
Within a few generations, this beylik became the vast Ottoman Empire.
Osman's principality was situated among Turkic principalities between the crumbling Byzantine Empire and the weakened Seljuq Sultanate of Rum.
Osman expanded his territory through strategic political alliances and military conflicts.
He attracted mercenaries with the promise of booty, then later with his reputation for winning.
Ottoman rulers prioritized political and military utility over ethnic or religious affinity.
They expanded their influence by strategically aligning with different sides in conflicts.
After Osman's death, his son Orhan established a sophisticated military organization and tax collection system to fund territorial expansion.
The Ottomans first major expansion was in the Balkans (Southeast Europe).
The military employed Turkic warriors and Balkan Christian converts.
Thousands of young Christian boys were captured and enslaved to become Janissaries, a fierce military elite force.
Enslaved boys could rise to high positions, such as viziers, in the Ottoman government.
Rulers of conquered areas were encouraged to convert to Islam and take positions in the Ottoman government.
Non-Muslims who belonged to Abrahamic religions were allowed religious freedom in exchange for jizya (a tax) and other strict conditions.
Non-Muslims were not allowed to join the army.

By the end of the fourteenth century, the Ottomans had conquered or subordinated most of the Anatolian beyliks and the Balkans.
In the first half of the fifteenth century, Sultan Bayezid I focused on western expansion.
Timur, a Central Asian ruler, attacked from the East, captured Bayezid, and sparked a ten-year struggle for succession.
Sultan Murad II reversed this trend but failed to capture Constantinople.
Sultan Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) vowed to capture Constantinople.
Mehmed II hired a Hungarian engineer to forge the largest cannon in the world.
Serbian miners were used to dig tunnels under the city walls.
Mehmed ordered his fleet of ships to be carried overland, attacking the city from an unexpected direction.
In the spring of 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottomans and became the Ottoman capital, known as Istanbul.
Istanbul means "to the city" from Greek.
By the time Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, the city was diminished.
Under Ottoman rule, Istanbul flourished again.
In Istanbul, people spoke Greek, Turkish, Armenian, Persian, Arabic, Bulgarian, Albanian, and Serbian.
Architects like Sinan filled the city with mosques and other buildings commissioned by the sultans.
The Ottomans brought commodities like coffee to Europe.
They entered a golden age of economic growth, territorial acquisition, art, and architecture.
The Ottomans brought together craftspeople from Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia to create a unique blend of cultural innovation.

Iznik ceramics were made using techniques from China's Ming dynasty, reimagined with Ottoman motifs.
The Ottomans continued to expand, cementing their political influence and trade routes.
The empire lasted for more than six hundred years.
At its peak, the Ottoman Empire stretched from Hungary to the Persian Gulf, and from the Horn of Africa to the Crimean Peninsula.
Hagia Sophia was one of the capital city's great buildings.
Hagia Sophia has been a church, a mosque, a museum, and is still used as a political tool.