Language: Greek used for liturgy; local vernaculars also adopted for broader access.
Authority: Led by patriarchs (e.g., Patriarch of Constantinople), who saw the Roman Pope as 'first among equals' rather than supreme.
Governance: Closely overseen by the Byzantine Emperor (Caesaropapism).
Theology: Different understanding of the Holy Spirit's procession (Filioque controvery); emphasis on deification (theosis).
Clergy: Priests allowed to marry before ordination (monks and bishops were celibate).
Sources of tension between the two factions:
Differing views on papal supremacy: Rome claimed universal authority, which Constantinople rejected.
Theological disputes: Most notably the Filioque clause (addition of "and the Son" to the Nicene Creed by the West).
Liturgical and cultural differences: Varying practices regarding bread for Eucharist, fasting customs, and clerical celibacy.
Political rivalry: Competition for influence and jurisdiction over emerging Christian communities.
Iconoclasm and Its Impact on Christianity
Key periods and motivations for Iconoclasm (Image-breaking) in the Byzantine Empire:
First Iconoclasm: Circa 726-787 AD.
Second Iconoclasm: Circa 814-842 AD.
Primary concern: Church and political leaders feared that the veneration of icons (religious images) had become idolatry, distracting congregations from the true worship of God.
Iconoclasm as a movement:
Advocated for the destruction or removal of religious images (icons) from churches and public spaces.
Aimed to purify Christian worship by refocusing devotion on doctrine, scripture, and sacraments.
This period led to the stripping of decorative art, including mosaics and sculptures, from many church buildings.
Theological arguments against icons:
Interpreted the Old Testament prohibitions against graven images literally.
Argued that depicting Christ was impossible without diminishing his divine nature or separating his two natures (divine and human).
Theological arguments for icons (Iconodules):
Argued that the Incarnation of Christ made it permissible to depict God in human form.
Icons were seen as windows to the divine, not idols, and honor shown to the icon passed to the prototype it represented.
Impact on early Christian artwork in Eastern Europe:
Significant reduction and destruction of existing religious art.
Shift in artistic expression, with stricter rules emerging for religious imagery after the controversy subsided (iconostasis developed to separate the altar from the congregation).
Hagia Sophia as an example:
Originally built as a cathedral by Emperor Justinian I in Constantinople in the 6^{th} century.
Converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest in 1453 AD.
Remarkable for still housing some Christian mosaics that survived the iconoclastic periods due to their strategic placement (high up) and later plastering over rather than outright destruction.
Architectural Developments in Christianity Post-Great Schism
Western European (Catholic) architecture after the Great Schism:
Romanesque period (pre-Gothic): Characterized by thick walls, round arches, massive piers, barrel vaults, and relatively dark interiors due to small windows.
Emergence of Gothic architecture (from the 12^{th} century):
Developed as a distinct style to symbolize spiritual aspiration and divine light.
Key characteristics:
Pointed arches: Allowed for greater height and directed weight downwards more efficiently.
Flying buttresses: External arched supports that counteracted the outward thrust of the vaults, allowing for unprecedented height and reduction of wall mass.
Large stained-glass windows: Flooded interiors with colorful light, depicting biblical stories and saints, creating a "heavenly" atmosphere.
Intricate sculptural decoration: Adorned portals, facades, and interiors with detailed figures and narratives.
Aimed to create awe-inspiring, soaring spaces that drew the gaze upwards.
Eastern European (Orthodox) architecture post-Schism:
Continued the Byzantine tradition, evolving but maintaining core principles.
Key characteristics:
Centralized plans: Often featuring a dome as the focal point, symbolizing the heavens.
Rich interior decoration: Lavish use of mosaics, frescoes, and icons, creating a sense of sacred mystery and divine presence.
Focus on interior: Exteriors were often more subdued, with the emphasis placed on the spiritual experience within.
Iconostasis: A screen adorned with icons separating the altar (Holy of Holies) from the nave, symbolizing the boundary between the earthly and heavenly realms.
Overall contrast: Western architecture sought to elevate physically with height and light, while Eastern architecture emphasized internal mystic beauty and symbolic representation of the cosmos.
The Great Schism of 1054
Underlying causes and key points of contention:
Papal Supremacy: The Roman Pope's claim to universal jurisdiction over the entire Christian Church vs. the Eastern Patriarchs' view of him as "first among equals" and a collegiate leadership of five patriarchs.
Filioque Clause: The addition of "and the Son" (Filioque) to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed by the Western Church regarding the procession of the Holy Spirit, which the East considered an unauthorized theological alteration.
Liturgical Differences:
Eucharist: Western use of unleavened bread (host) vs. Eastern use of leavened bread.
Fasting practices: Different observances and strictness.
Clerical Celibacy: Western requirement for priests to be celibate vs. Eastern allowance for married priests (excluding bishops and monks).
Political and Cultural Differences: Growing estrangement due to linguistic (Latin vs. Greek), cultural, and political divergences between the two halves of the former Roman Empire.
The fateful meeting in 1054 AD:
A delegation from Rome, led by Cardinal Humbert, traveled to Constantinople.
Intended to address the issues, but was marked by arrogance and misunderstanding on both sides.
Mutual Excommunication: On July 16, 1054, Cardinal Humbert (representing Pope Leo IX, who had recently died) placed a bull of excommunication on the altar of the Hagia Sophia against Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople.
In response, Patriarch Cerularius publicly excommunicated Cardinal Humbert and his associates.
Immediate and long-term consequences:
The mutual excommunications formalized the split that had been developing for centuries.
Resulted in the official and enduring division of Christianity into two main branches: Roman Catholicism (centered in Rome) and Eastern Orthodoxy (centered in Constantinople and other patriarchates).
Despite numerous attempts at reconciliation over the centuries (including significant gestures in the 20^{th} and 21^{st} centuries by Popes and Orthodox Patriarchs), the schism remains.