Claims: Reading and Writing Skills

Explicit vs. Implicit Claims

Objectives

• Explain the difference between explicit and implicit claims.
• Understand the guidelines on how to use implicit and explicit claims.
• Identify implicit and explicit claims in the text.
• Write arguments that use implicit and explicit claims.

Explicit Claim

• Directly, precisely, and clearly stated.
• Analyzes what a writer or speaker is trying to explain based on what they actually say.
• Easily identified by linking it to the claim using "because."
• Example: Claim - Johnny is "guilty of murder" because "he killed Jose."

Implicit Claim

• Not directly stated.
• Assertions retrieved by reading between the lines.
• Assumptions often infer values, and values are often dependent on context.

Example: Claim - Johnny Murdered Jose

• Explicit Reason: Because "he shot him while watching the show."
• Implicit Reason: "He shot him on purpose."
• Implicit Reason: "The shooting was not justified."
• Proving an explicit claim is easy and can be done with references to facts.
• Proving an implicit claim requires context.
• Note also how it generates its own argument.

Arguments Consist Of:

• Claims: The main idea or thesis, which attempts to present or defend an issue.
• Reasons or Premise: A basis, or assumption on which reasoning proceeds.

Formula for Finding Explicit and Implicit Reasons

1. State the Source’s Claim/Thesis:

• As accurately and clearly as possible.
• Whenever possible, try to do so by quoting the author’s own language/words.
  • Claim Example: “The Magat River Dam should be removed.”

2. Locate and Summarize the Explicit Reasons (ERs):

• State the ER as it followed the Claim and the word "because"
• Again, however possible, do so using direct quotes.
  • Example: The Magat River dam should be removed because it is threatening the fish cage.

3. Locate the Implicit Reasons (IRs) for each Explicit Reason

• Combination of two things:
  • It will state/clarify/make obvious the logical principles that connect the Explicit Reason to the Claim.
  • It will usually state/clarify/make obvious the cultural principle or values that connect the Explicit Reason to the Claim.

Examples

• "I believe otherwise. Social media platforms bring a lot of benefits because it makes communication and information dissemination a lot easier." (claim) (reason)
• "This Research manuscript is well-written because it is written by Dela Cruz, San Pedro, Marasigan, Capero, and Manalo."
• "The dog was lying on the grass in the middle of the lawn in front of Mrs. Shears’ house. The dog was dead. There was a garden fork sticking out of the dog.” –The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Mark Haddon

How to Find Implicit Reasons (IR)

• Write: If …, then …
• You may need or want to broaden the Explicit Reason to state the general value rule.
• Be careful to state the line of reasoning as accurately as possible.

4. For Each ER, You Need Two Sets of Information

• Evidence that the explicit reason is true. This is a matter of locating quotations and/or factual information.
• Evidence that the implicit reason is true. Locating evidence the IR is true can be tricky, as the IR is usually implied in the overall context the source speaks to.

Activities Examples:

• Lisa wants to buy a new smart phone but she doesn’t have the money. Which question from the list below would be considered explicit?
  • Why can’t Lisa buy the smart phone?
• Michael was walking home from school when he found a sick stray cat beside a bin. He stopped and gave the cat a look. He looked forward and continued walking home. What implicit information can you obtain from this story?
  • Michael is a selfish person.
• What can be implied about Mr. Santos, who, upon seeing that he is late for work, turns on the television and starts thinking about what to make for breakfast?
  • He doesn’t care about being late.
• If Mr. Reyes wanted to get into a good nursing school, then she needs to study hard and talk to people who are already nurses so that she can know what to expect from nursing school. What information below is explicit?
  • What kind of school does Mr. Reyes want to attend.
• The coach blew his whistle and told the team to pack it up. Practice was over. Brian asked his coach to please leave the lights in the gym on so he could stay a little longer. He stayed for another hour practicing his shooting and dribbling. What information below is a good example of implicit information?
  • Brian was a dedicated athlete.

Types of Claims

1. Claims of Fact

• A statement that has existed (past), exists (present) or will exist (future).
• Used to support factual evidence that is sufficient, reliable and appropriate.
• Examples:
  • Based on study, HIV is still the on the top list of deadliest viruses in the world.
  • The Department of Education implements the modular learning as per response to the IATF recommendations.

Guidelines for Claims of Fact

• Claims of fact risk the problem that the factual map is constantly being drawn. New data always forces us to give our conclusion.
• Claims of fact are often qualified by such terms as generally, probably, or as a rule.
• To be valid, claims of fact usually include sufficient and appropriate date.
• Claims of fact must rely upon reliable authorities or they are worthless. Especially in the age of the Internet, teachers must explain that a source's reliability is often ambiguous and debatable.
• Claims of fact must recognize the difference between facts and inferences.

Defending a Claim of Fact

• Claims of fact are clearly stated.
• Define terms that may be controversial or ambiguous.
• Make sure that your evidence is sufficient, accurate, recent, typical, and comes from reliable authorities.
• Make clear when conclusions and inferences of interpretations with facts.
• Arrange your evidence in order to emphasize what is not important.

2. Claims of Policy

• Claims of Policy provide a solution or another series of questions in response to the claims of fact. They are often procedural, organized plans.
• Examples:
  • The Philippine government should focus on the improvement of its healthcare system.
  • The Dean of the College of Education must present the student-teacher’s case studies in the forum.

Lines of Reasoning (Example):

• In law, the claim of fact posits that Jim Santos is guilty of killing his wife.
• The claim of value would investigate intent, whether it is first-degree, manslaughter, accident or whatever.
• The claim of policy would determine the punishment, be it acquittal, imprisonment, execution, etc

Guidelines for Claims of Policy

• Claims of Policy argue that certain conditions should exist.
• Claims of Policy advocate adoption of policies or courses of action because problems have arisen that call for solutions.
• Almost always "should" or "ought to" or "must" are included in the claim.

Defending Claims of Policy

• When you are defending a claim of policy, you must make your proposal clear. Terms should be precisely defined.
• When you are defending a claim of policy, if necessary, establish that there is a need for change.
• When you are defending a claim of policy, consider the opposing arguments. You may want to state them in brief paragraph in order to answer them in the body of your argument.
• When you are defending a claim of policy, devote the major part of your research paper to prove your proposal in an answer to the opposing arguments. Support your proposal with solid data, but don't neglect moral and/or common sense reasons, which may even more persuasive.

3. Claim of Value

• Usually leads to essays that evaluate.
• Claims of value examine your topic in terms of the phrases, “it is better to…, it is unethical that…, it is wrong to…, it is more beautiful than… ”
• Claims of value also involve “taste” in art, literature, music, film, food, etc.
• Claims of value involve judgments, appraisals and evaluations.
• Claims of value have a bias of sorts and often embedded in social, religious, and/or cultural values.

Examples

• Animal testing is the worst way to check medical products.
• Abortion is immoral.
• Death penalty is unjust.
• Surrogacy is inherently exploitative and unethical.

Guidelines for Claims of Value

• Claims of Value make a judgment
• Claims of Value express disapproval and/or approval.
• Claims of Value attempt to prove that action, belief or condition is right or wrong, good or bad, etc.
• Some claims of Value are simply expressions of taste, preferences and principles.
• Many claims of Value, however, can be defended or attacked on the basis of standards. You have to arrive at reasonable standards that readers will accept.

Defending Claims of Value

• Make clear that the value or principles you are defending should have priority on a scale of values over competing values or principles others defend.
• Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good results.
• Some values are abstract. You should use real-world examples and illustrations to clarify meanings and value distinctions.
• It is highly persuasive to use the testimony of others to prove that knowledgeable or highly regarded people share your values.

Summary of Claim Types

• A Fact Claim: In other words, it is an argument (claim) about a data, factual information (fact).
• A Value Claim: In other words, it is an argument (claim) about a moral, judgment, or philosophical value.
• A Policy Claim: In other words, it is an argument (claim) about an action, order, and law (policy).