Ch.8 Logical fallacies

  • Logical Fallacies: Common errors in reasoning that can lead to incorrect conclusions or misrepresent evidence. The following are some well-known logical fallacies:

    • Ad Hominem:

      • Definition: Attacking an individual's character rather than addressing the actual argument or proposal.

      • Example: "Diaz may argue that we need to save the polar bears, but he’s the type who gets emotional over nothing."

    • Allness:

      • Definition: Making broad generalizations about a group using terms such as "all", "everyone", "no one", "always", or "never".

      • Example: "Students enjoy studying. All students, all subjects, all the time."

    • Bandwagon Argument:

      • Definition: Suggesting that one should do something because it is popular or everyone else is doing it, implying that those who don’t follow may miss out.

      • Example: "Purchasing the new global glimmer admits you to the nation's most elite group of smartphone users."

    • Begging the Question:

      • Definition: Assuming the conclusion within the premises, often rephrasing the statement or defining terms in a circular manner.

      • Example: "Rapists are dangerous because they are menaces."

    • Circular Reasoning:

      • Definition: Supporting a statement with another statement that is just a rewording of the original claim, which doesn’t provide actual evidence.

      • Example: "He is a liar because he simply isn’t telling the truth."

    • Either/Or Reasoning:

      • Definition: Oversimplifying complex issues as having only two possible sides or solutions.

      • Example: "What are we going to do about global warming? Either we stop using all the energy-consuming products that cause it, or we just learn to live with it."

    • Non Sequitur:

      • Definition: Making a conclusion that does not logically follow from the premises.

      • Latin Meaning: "It does not follow."

      • Example: "In college, he got all A’s."

    • Oversimplification:

      • Definition: Offering simple solutions to complex problems.

      • Example: "If we want to end substance abuse, let’s send every drug user to prison for life, even aspirin users?"

    • Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc:

      • Definition: Assuming a causal relationship between two events simply because one follows the other in time.

      • Latin Meaning: "After this, therefore because of this."

      • Example: "After Jenny's black cat crossed my path, everything went wrong, and I failed my midterm."

    • Proof by Too Few Examples:

      • Definition: Making a broad conclusion based on insufficient or anecdotal evidence.

      • Example: "Armenians are great chefs. My neighbor is Armenian, and can he cook?"

  • Reviewing and Reflecting:

    • Important to critically evaluate the characteristics that make an issue a suitable topic for a paper that takes a stand.

    • Consider complexity, relevance, and the ability to engage in a debate on the subject.