ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

RELIGIOUS REFORM IN 6TH CENTURY BC

• End of later Vedic age; priestly monopoly, costly, common man excluded; salvation denied to Shudras.

• Sramanas emerged in Rig Vedic Age; earliest critics of Vedic religion.

• 6th Century BC: six philosophical systems (Darshanas) founded; critical to later Indian thought.

• Darshana systems and founders:

  • Samkhya (Kapila)

  • Yoga (Patanjali)

  • Nyaya (Gautama)

  • Vaisheshika (Kanada)

  • Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini)

  • Uttar Mimansa (Vyāsadeva Badarayan)

• Jainism and Buddhism rise as reforms; Jainism protests Brahmanism earlier, Buddhism more decisive.

BUDDHISM: ORIGINS AND LIFE OF SIDDHARTHA

• Gautama Buddha born in Lumbini (present-day Nepal) in 563 B.C. on Visakha full moon; parents belonged to Sakyas.

• Renounced palace life at 29 after encountering the four sights; Great Departure with charioteer Kantaka.

• Disciplined study under Alara Kalama and Udraka Ramaputra; sought answer beyond their teachings.

• Attained enlightenment (Bodhi) at Bodh Gaya after 49 days of meditation; witnessed by Earth goddess Prithvi.

• First sermon at Sarnath; Dharmachakra Pravartana; taught Dharmapada to five disciples.

• Reached Mahaparinirvana at Kusinara at age 80; last words highlighted impermanence.

BUDDHISM: CORE TEACHINGS

• Arya Satyas (Four Noble Truths):

  • Life is suffering (dukkha).

  • Cause of suffering is craving/desire (tanha).

  • Cessation of suffering is possible (nirvana).

  • Path to cessation is the Arya Ashtanga Marga (Eightfold Path).

• Eightfold Path: right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration.

• Madhyama Marga (Middle Path): balance between extremes.

• Anatmavada: no eternal soul; karma and rebirth governed by actions.

• Ahimsa (non-violence) as virtue; defense allowed when necessary.

• Community (Sangha) and monastic codes; lay followers encouraged.

BUDDHISM: SANGHA AND ORGANIZATION

• Sangha: order of monks (Bhikshu) and nuns (Bhikshuni); women admitted later due to Ananda's influence.

• Monastic rules (Pratimoksha): prescribed conduct and prohibitions.

• Early monasteries served as centers of learning and social life.

BUDDHISM: COUNCILS AND SCHISMS

• 1st Buddhist Council (483 B.C.) at Rajagriha: Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka; Upali recited Vinaya Pitaka.

• 2nd Council (383 B.C.) at Vaishali: split into Mahasanghikas (liberal) and Theravadins (conservative).

• 3rd Council (250 B.C.) at Pataliputra: Ashoka patron; Abhidhamma Pitaka composed.

• 4th Council (1st century A.D.) at Kundalavana: Vasumitra presided; Asvaghosa contributed; Buddhism split into Mahayana and Hinayana.

MAHAYANA AND VAJRAYANA

• Mahayana (Great Vehicle): salvation for all; Bodhisattva ideal; expanded Buddhas and Buddhalands.

• Vajrayana: tantric traditions; later development under Kushans; fast spiritual attainment.

• Key figures: Nagarjuna (Madhyamika, Sunyavada), Asanga and Vasubandhu (Vijnanavada).

• Bodhisattvas and celestial Buddhas feature prominently in Mahayana art and texts.

• Differences with Hinayana include emphasis on Bodhisattva path vs. Arhat focus in Theravada.

BUDDHISM: DOCTRINES AND SCHOOLS

• Three types of perfected beings: Buddhas (self-realized), Pratyeka Buddhas (private), Arhats (sought personal enlightenment).

• Mahayana replaces Arhat with Bodhisattva as an ideal (compassion for all beings).

BUDDHISM: FURTHER DOCTRINES AND SCHOOLS

• Madhyamika (Nagarjuna): Sunyata (emptiness) as ultimate reality.

• Yogacara / Vijnanavada (Asanga, Vasubandhu): reality is a mental construct of perceiver.

• Key Mahayana texts and philosophers contributed to later Buddhist thought; Abhidharma texts expanded in various councils.

BUDDHISM: COSMIC BUDDHISM AND SITOS

• Five principal Dhyani Buddhas (Adih Buddha’s five emanations) symbolize elements; Buddhas associated with palaces and buddha-fields.

• Mahayana Sects include Vajrayana; deities and cosmic pantheon develop.

BUDDHISM: GLOBAL INFLUENCE AND LITERATURE

• Vijaya Singhava introduced Buddhism to Sri Lanka; Kumarajiva to China; Kanishka helped spread in Central Asia.

• Nalanda University founded by Kumaragupta; Milindapanha records dialogue with Indo-Greeks.

• Sangha and Buddhist literature spread across Asia; languages shift from Pali to Sanskrit under Mahayana influence.

BUDDHISM: DECLINE IN INDIA

• Brahmanism revival and Bhakti movements absorbed Buddhist features; Shankara argued Buddhism and Jainism as Brahmanical branches.

• Invasions by Huns (5th–6th c.) and later Turkic invasions damaged monasteries.

• Islam and political upheavals further diminished Buddhist centers; relocation to Nepal and other regions.

BUDDHISM: ARCHITECTURE AND TEXTS

• Chaityas (prayer halls) and Viharas (monasteries) as core architectural forms; Stupas as reliquaries.

• Notable sites: Piprahwa, Sanchi, Amaravati; Barabar cave temples (Ashoka, Ajivikas).

• Principal scriptures: Suttapitaka, Vinayapitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka; Milindapanha as a famous dialogue.

JAINISM: ORIGINS AND TEACHINGS

• Emerged during Rig Vedic times; 24 Tirthankaras with Mahavira as the last; Rishabh as first Tirthankara.

• Core ethics: Satya (truth), Ahimsa (non-violence), Aparigraha (non-possessiveness), Asteya (non-stealing).

• Practices include fifth Brahmacharya; Pancha-Anuvratas (five vows); Syadvada (maybe) and Anekantavada (many viewpoints).

• 14 Purvas compiled into Angas; Jain monks and nuns; White-clad (Swetambara) vs naked (Digambara) sects.

JAINISM: INSTITUTIONS AND ARCHITECTURE

• First Jain Council at Pataliputra; 14 Purvas reduced to Angas; Digambars and Swetambaras split after the council.

• Early patronage by Chandragupta Maurya; Shravanabelagola as major Jain pilgrimage site (Gomateshwar statue).

• Cave temples and Basadis (Jain temples); Barabar caves and other cave-temple architecture across India.

BHAGVATISM/VAISHNAVISM

• Bhagavata tradition emerged as a reaction to Buddhism/Jainism; Vasudeva Krishna as founder; emphasizes Bhakti (devotion).

• Philosophical stance: Gnanamarga (knowledge) criticized; Karmamarga (action) seen as relative; Bhakti (devotion) proposed as simpler path.

• Krishna identified as an incarnation of Vishnu; Pancharatra system (worship of Krishna and Yadava heroes) expands ritual practice.

• Gupta era later assimilated Bhagavatism into Brahmanism (Vaishnavism) with broader acceptance.

VAISHNAVISM

• In South India, Vaishnavism flourished under Alvars; devotional Tamil literature (Prabandha) spread to Southeast Asia.

• Key Acharyas: Ramanuja (Visita-Advaita), Madhava, Vallabha.

SHAIVISM

• Oldest native sect; Rudra evolved into Shiva; earliest Shivling at Gudimallam (56 CE).

• Worship spread as Bhakti movement; sects include Pashupata, Kashmir Shaivism (Trika), and various regional Shaiva groups.

• Nayanars (63 Tamil saints) and Alvars (12 Vishnu saints) promoted bhakti; Thevaram and Divya Prabandham compiled in temples.

• Smarthas (followers of Adi Shankaracharya) later integrated diverse sects into Brahmanism; Panchayatana system for temple worship.

SANGAM AGE

• South India: Megalithic culture; three dynasties dominated: Cheras (Kerala), Cholas (Tamil Nadu), Pandyas (Tamil Nadu).

• Sangams at Madurai; themes centered on war and polity; major Tamil works include Tholkappiyam, Tirukkural, Silappadigaram, Manimegalai, and Sivaga Sindamani.

• Trade with Rome; ports like Muziris (west coast) and Arikamedu (Pudukkottai/Gr) facilitated silk, spice, and urban exchange.

• Social structure: fourfold varna, Vellalas as landlords, Enadis as military leaders; practice of Sati noted; Veeragal guards.

MAURYAN DYNASTY: RISE AND STATECRAFT

• Chandragupta Maurya founded Maurya Empire (c. 321–298 BCE); defeated Nandas; formed a centralized, bureaucratic state.

• Political framework: Arthashastra (Kautilya) outlines statecraft, espionage, administration, and welfare approaches.

• First treaty with Seleucus I (305 BCE) marked diplomatic engagement with Hellenistic world.

• Ashoka (reign around 268–232 BCE) expanded empire, converted to Buddhism, and propagated Dhamma (Dharma).

MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY

• Highly centralized administration with a strong civil service and provincial governance.

• Samanthas (provincial governors) and Bhuktis (land grants) as revenue and governance mechanisms.

• Land revenue (Bhaga) and state control of mines, wine, salt; guilds (Srenis) played key economic roles.

• Infrastructure: Edicts, pillars, and rock inscriptions detailing governance, welfare, and public works.

POST-MAURYAN ERA: DYNASTIES AND CONTACTS

• Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks): Menander notable; first large-scale gold coinage; Milindapanha.

• Shakas (Kshatrapas): Rudradaman’s Junagadh inscription; first Sanskrit inscription; lake restoration.

• Parthians (Pahlavas): Gondophernes; early Christian contact in India.

• Kushans: Kanishka the Great; Shaka era; Gandhara art; extensive coinage; Silk Road interaction.

GUPTA DYNASTY: GOLDEN AGE OF INDIA

• Dynastic rulers: Srigupta, Chandragupta I (founder of Gupta era; aligned with Lichchhavis); Samudragupta; Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).

• Political achievements: territorial expansions, patronage of arts, diplomacy, and festival culture.

• Cultural flowering: Kalidasa (Abhijnana Shakuntalam, Raghuvamsa, etc.); Navaratnas (nine scholars) including Varahamihira, Amarasimha, Kalidasa, Bharavi, and others.

• Science and literature: Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta; Panini and other grammarians; Ajanta cave painting tradition continued; Nagara temple architecture.

• Economy and administration: land grants (Brahmadeya, Agraharas); Samanta system; decentralization; Gauda regions integrated with wider trade networks.

GUPTA ARCHITECTURE AND ART

• Temple architecture: Nagara style; notable temples at Mathura, Gaya, Bhitargaon, Deogarh, Paharpur; Konark style not Gupta-era but later.

• Sculpture and painting: Ajanta tradition; rock-cut temples; Kalidasa’s era reflected in literature.

• Science and learning: wide range of scholars; advancements in arithmetic, astronomy, and medicine; zero concept development later associated with Indian scholars.

WESTERN CHALUKYAS AND PALLAVA DYNASTY (ARCHITECTURE AND INDIA’S SOUTHERN GLORY)

• Western Chalukyas (Badami): Pulakesin II defeated Harsha; Vesara (Deccan) temple architecture blending North and South styles; Aihole as a temple-architectural hub; Badami, Pattadakal centers.

• Pallava Dynasty: Amaravati and Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) prominence; Shore Temple and Kailasanath temple; rock-cut caves and monolithic Rathas; Dravidian temple style roots.

• Cultural fusion: South India promoted education and Sanskrit learning; Pattini cult and Tamil bhakti flourished; architecture and sculpture reached high levels of refinement.