SECTION A: NIGERIA BEFORE 1800

INTRODUCTION

The Antiquity of Human Habitation—Late Stone Age ($15,000$–$500$ BC)

The Nigerian state, as it's recognized today, was officially established in $1914$ following the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates by Lord Lugard. The name "Nigeria" is attributed to Flora Shaw, who derived it from the Niger River, meaning "area of the Niger." As the most populous country in Africa, Nigeria accounts for approximately one in four Africans.

The earliest known human habitation in Nigeria is associated with archaeological findings in Nok, central Nigeria, with artifacts dating to about $39,000$ BC. Evidence suggests a transition from the Early Stone Age to the Late Stone Age ($15,000$ BC to $500$ BC), characterized by microlithic tools.

1. Key Archaeological Sites:
   • Rop (Jos Plateau): Rock shelters indicating continuous habitation.
   • Daiama (South of Lake Chad): Evidence of early pastoralism and the use of iron.
   • Mejiro Cave (Near Old Oyo): Provides links to the ancestors of the Yoruba.
   • Iwo Eleru (Ondo State): Discovery of a skull dated to $9,200$ BC, representing the oldest known specimen of Homo sapiens in West Africa.

The Nok Culture

Discovered in $1928$ during tin mining operations, the Nok culture represents a significant leap in technological and artistic development.

• Iron Smelting: By roughly $500$ BC, the Nok people were among the first in West Africa to transition into the Iron Age, bypassing a Copper Age.
• Terracotta Art: The fired-clay sculptures are highly stylized, featuring hollow centers, triangular eyes, and elaborate hairstyles. These figurines likely served religious or ancestral purposes.
• Geographic Extent: The culture spanned across a wide area including present-day Abuja, Kaduna (the village of Nok), Plateau, and Nassarawa.
• Legacy: Scholars believe the Nok tradition influenced the naturalistic bronze and terracotta sculptures of Ife and the ritualistic art of Igbo Ukwu ($9^{th}$ century CE).

Linguistic Evidence

Linguistic studies help trace the movements of ancient populations. Many ethnic groups in Nigeria possess languages that differentiate them from their neighbors, categorized into three major families:

1. Niger-Congo Family: The largest family, suggesting a common origin in the West African heartland.
   • West Atlantic: Includes Fulfulde (Fulani).
   • Kwa: Includes Yoruba, Igbo, Edo, and Ijo. Linguists suggest the Kwa group differentiated approximately $6,000$ years ago near the Niger-Benue confluence.
   • Benue-Congo: Includes Tiv, Ibibio, and Efik.
2. Afroasiatic Family: Primarily found in the North, including the Chadic branch (Hausa, Bata).
3. Nilo-Saharan Family: Originating from the Nile valley/Sahara, including Kanuri.

Traditional Political Structures

(a) Centralised Societies (Kingdoms and States)

Centralised states were characterized by a hierarchical structure where power was concentrated in a single monarch.

• Hereditary Titles: Rulers often held titles such as Mai (Borno), Sarki (Hausaland), or Oba (Yoruba/Benin).
• Checks and Balances: Governance was rarely absolute. In the Oyo Empire, the Oyo-Mesi (council of seven kingmakers) led by the Bashorun could depose an Alaafin if he became tyrannical. The deposed ruler was presented with an empty calabash or parrot's eggs, signaling he must commit suicide.
• Religious Role: Most kings were seen as semi-divine, acting as intermediaries between the ancestors and the living.

(b) Non-Centralised Societies (Segmentary)

Societies like the Igbo, Urhobo, and Tiv lacked a single central authority.

• Village Democracy: Power was vested in the Amaala (Council of Elders) or assemblies of all adult males.
• Title Societies: Influence was earned through status and titles (e.g., Ozo titles in Igboland).
• Secret Societies: Groups like the Ekpe (Ibibio/Efik) or Ogboni (Yoruba) performed judicial and executive functions, maintaining social order and enforcing trade regulations.

Inter-Group Relations

Commercial and Cultural Contacts

• Ecological Interdependence: The North produced grains, leather, and salt, while the South produced kola nuts, palm oil, and timber. This necessitated a robust internal trade network.
• The Niger-Benue Confluence: Acted as a "melting pot" where the cultures of the Sahara met the cultures of the Forest.
• External Influence: Horses imported from North Africa via the Sahara were crucial for the cavalry of the Oyo and Borno empires, dictating their military dominance.
• Cultural Loans: Masquerade traditions (e.g., Egungun) and religious cults were often borrowed or adapted between the Nupe, Yoruba, and Igala peoples.

THE KANEM-BORNO EMPIRE

Foundation and First Empire

Established in the $9^{th}$ century CE by the Kanuri, the Saifawa Dynasty is one of the longest-reigning dynasties in world history.

• Mai Dunama Dibalami ($1210$–$1248$): Expanded the empire to its greatest extent, controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes to Fezzan.
• Decline: Internal dynastic struggles and the Bulala Wars in the $14^{th}$ century forced the court to relocate from Kanem (East of Lake Chad) to Borno (West of Lake Chad).

The Second Kanuri Empire

• Ali Ghaji ($1465$–$1497$): Founded a new capital at Ngazargamu and stabilized the state.
• Idris Aloma ($1571$–$1603$): Introduced military innovations, including Turkish musketeers (the first firearms in the region) and a specialized camel cavalry. He was a devout Muslim who replaced customary laws with Sharia.

THE HAUSA STATES

State Formation and the Bayajidda Legend

According to legend, Bayajidda from Baghdad killed a sacred snake in Daura and married the Queen. Their descendants founded the Hausa Bakwai (Seven Legitimate States: Daura, Kano, Katsina, Zazzau, Gobir, Rano, and Biram).

• Banza Bakwai: Seven "illegitimate" states (e.g., Kebbi, Nupe) that were influenced by Hausa culture but were not ethnically "pure" Hausa.
• Economic Specialization: Kano became a center for cloth dyeing and craft; Zazzau (Zaria) was the center for slave raiding; Katsina was the northern commercial hub.

THE OYO EMPIRE

• Cavalry: Oyo's strength lay in its large cavalry, which was only possible in the savanna region where horses could thrive away from the tsetse fly.
• Expansion: Under the Alaafin dynasty, Oyo conquered Dahomey and reached the height of its power between $1650$ and $1750$.
• Decline: Internal rivalry between the Alaafin and the Bashorun Gaha, combined with the Fulani Jihad and the rebellion of Afonja of Ilorin, led to its final collapse in the early $19^{th}$ century.

THE BENIN EMPIRE

• Origins: Transitioned from the Ogiso dynasty to the Eweka dynasty ($13^{th}$ century).
• Oba Ewuare the Great ($1440$): Transformed Benin into a true empire, expanding the city walls and establishing a complex court hierarchy.
• European Trade: Benin traded pepper, ivory, and cloth with the Portuguese starting in the late $15^{th}$ century but famously restricted the export of male slaves for centuries.

SECTION B: NIGERIA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

UTHMAN DAN FODIO JIHAD

• Religious Reform: Uthman dan Fodio, a Fulani cleric in Gobir, preached against Takhlit (mixing Islamic and pagan practices).
• The Conflict: After Yunfa (King of Gobir) attempted to assassinate him, Uthman performed the Hijra to Gudu in $1804$.
• The Sokoto Caliphate: The Jihad resulted in the largest state in sub-Saharan Africa, divided into the Eastern wing (managed by Muhammad Bello) and the Western wing (managed by Abdullahi dan Fodio).

THE FALL OF OYO AND YORUBA WARS

Following the collapse of Old Oyo, the Yoruba people descended into a series of internecine conflicts, such as the Owun War and the Kiriji War. New centers like Ibadan and Abeokuta emerged as refuge cities and military powers.

THE DELTA STATES AND BRITISH INFLUENCE

• Legitimate Trade: The abolition of the slave trade forced a shift to Palm Oil, known as "Red Gold," essential for the Industrial Revolution in Europe.
• The House System: Social and commercial organizations where slaves and free men could rise to power based on trade ability (e.g., Jaja of Opobo, a former slave who became a King).
• Colonization: By $1900$, the British Oil Rivers Protectorate and the Royal Niger Company's territories were consolidated into the Southern and Northern Protectorates, setting the stage for modern Nigeria.