Life Science Biology Regents Review Study Guide

Regents Essential Scientific Vocabulary

  • Tier 2 Definitions:

    • Abnormal: Unusual or not normal.

    • Activate: To turn something on.

    • Adverse: Harmful or negative.

    • Advantageous: Helpful or giving a benefit.

    • Beneficial: Good or helpful.

    • Breeding: When animals reproduce and have offspring.

    • Capture: To take or collect something.

    • Circulate: To move around in a loop or path.

    • Consistent: Staying the same over time; reliable.

    • Conserve: To use something carefully so it's not wasted.

    • Convert: To change something into a different form.

    • Disproportionately: Too much or too little compared to something else.

    • Dormant: Not active for a period of time but able to become active again.

    • Efficient: Getting things done well without wasting time or energy.

    • Emit: To release or send out (like light, gas, or sound).

    • Erosion: When wind, water, or ice wears away land.

    • Excessive: Too much of something.

    • Extract: To remove something.

    • Facilitate: To make something easier.

    • Fluctuate: To go up and down or change often.

    • Forage: To search for food.

    • Implement: To start using a plan or rule.

    • Influx: A large arrival of something, usually all at once.

    • Infestation: When too many pests or harmful organisms invade an area.

    • Interfere: To get in the way of something or disturb it.

    • Invasive: A species that spreads quickly and causes harm to the environment.

    • Migrate: To move from one place to another, often seasonally.

    • Optimal: The best or most ideal condition.

    • Penetrate: To break through or go into something.

    • Preserve: To protect something so it stays the same over time.

    • Reduce: To make something smaller or use less of it.

    • Regulate: To control or manage how something works.

    • Spawn: When fish or aquatic animals lay eggs.

    • Sprout: When a plant begins to grow from a seed.

    • Stimulate: To encourage something to grow, develop, or become active.

Hierarchical Organization and Homeostasis in Multicellular Organisms

  • Hierarchical Organization (HS-LSI-2):

    • Multicellular organisms possess a hierarchical structural organization (cells → tissues → organs → systems) that helps them perform essential life functions.

    • Human Body Systems and Functions:

      • Digestive: Break down food to be absorbed into the blood.

      • Respiratory: Gas exchange (taking in O2O_2, removing CO2CO_2).

      • Immune: Protection from pathogens.

      • Circulatory: Transport of nutrients, gases, and waste.

      • Nervous: Fast communication and control of body processes.

      • Endocrine: Slow communication using hormones.

      • Excretory: Removal of metabolic wastes (e.g., urea, water).

      • Muscular: Movement and support.

      • Reproductive: Production of offspring.

      • Skeletal: Support, protection, and blood cell production.

  • Interacting Systems in Plants:

    • Root System: Anchors the tree, absorbs water and minerals from the soil.

    • Shoot System (Stem, Trunk, Branches, Leaves): Connects roots to branches, transports material, performs photosynthesis, and contains reproductive structures.

    • Interaction Example: Transpiration of water from leaf surfaces requires constant absorption of water by roots and transport through the shoot system.

  • Homeostasis and Feedback (HS-LSI-3):

    • Definition: Disease is defined as a failure of homeostasis. Feedback mechanisms maintain internal conditions within certain limits even as external conditions change.

    • Positive Feedback: Encourages the current internal process.

      • Examples: Root development in response to water levels, blood clotting, and childbirth.

    • Negative Feedback: Discourages the current process to return the system to a "normal" set point.

      • Examples: Heart rate response to exercise (to transport O2O_2 and CO2CO_2), stomate response to moisture/temperature, body temperature regulation, and blood glucose levels.

    • Stimulus: Any external or internal factor causing a response.

    • Response: The reaction to a stimulus.

    • Set Point: The target value or range the system aims to maintain.

  • The Immune System:

    • White Blood Cells: Produce antibodies, which are specifically shaped proteins that bind to antigens on the cell membranes of foreign cells.

    • Memory Cells: Allow the immune system to "remember" pathogens (germs, microbes) for long-term protection.

    • Vaccines: Consist of dead or weakened pathogens (or parts like antigens/mRNA) that stimulate antibody production.

    • Herd Immunity: High vaccination rates prevent the spread of disease within a population.

    • Antibiotics: Medicines used specifically to treat bacterial infections.

Scientific Investigation and Design

  • Investigation Vocabulary:

    • Prediction: A statement about future events based on current evidence.

    • Independent Variable: The factor that is tested, changed, or controlled by the researcher.

    • Dependent Variable: The data collected as a result of the experiment.

    • Constants: Factors kept the same to ensure results are due to the tested variable.

    • Constraints: Limitations or restrictions (e.g., cost, materials, time, environmental impact, societal needs).

    • Criteria: Specific requirements a solution must meet to be successful.

    • Precision: How close a series of measurements are to each other (reproducibility).

    • Accuracy: How close a measurement is to the correct/accepted value.

    • Qualitative Data: Descriptions or observations without numbers.

    • Quantitative Data: Observations involving numerical measurements.

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

  • Molecular Composition (HS-LS1-6):

    • The primary elements in living systems are Hydrogen (HH), Oxygen (OO), Nitrogen (NN), and Carbon (CC).

    • Sugars (e.g., Glucose C6H12O6C_6H_{12}O_6): Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

    • Synthesis: Glucose hydrocarbon backbones combine with Nitrogen to form amino acids, which are then assembled into macromolecules like proteins or DNA.

    • Elements are recombined through chemical reactions such as digestion and synthesis, transferring energy between systems of molecules.

  • Photosynthesis (HS-LS1-5):

    • Process: Captures light (solar) energy, carbon dioxide, and water to convert them into oxygen and sugar (chemical energy).

    • Equation: 6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{light energy} \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2

    • Location: Occurs only in the chloroplasts of producers (autotrophs).

  • Aerobic Cellular Respiration (HS-LS1-7):

    • Process: Bonds of food (glucose) and oxygen molecules are broken, forming new compounds and releasing stored energy as ATP.

    • ATP: The usable form of chemical energy for life processes.

    • Equation: C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATPC_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + \text{ATP}

    • Location: Occurs in the mitochondria of ALL organisms.

  • The Carbon Cycle (HS-LS2-5, HS-ESS2-6):

    • Carbon cycles through the Biosphere (living things), Atmosphere (air), Hydrosphere (water), and Geosphere (rocks/earth).

    • Processes:

      • Photosynthesis: Removes CO2CO_2 from the atmosphere.

      • Respiration: Releases CO2CO_2 into the atmosphere.

      • Combustion: Burning fossil fuels/organic matter releases CO2CO_2.

      • Carbon Sequestration: The process of removing CO2CO_2 from the atmosphere and storing it in pools (plants, soil, oceans, fossil fuels).

  • Trophic Levels and Energy Flow (HS-LS2-4):

    • Energy flows in one direction; ecosystems require consistent solar input.

    • Trophic Efficiency: Only approximately 10%10\% of energy is transferred to the next higher level. The rest is lost as thermal energy (heat), used for metabolic processes, or lost as feces.

    • Biomass: Total mass of organisms at each feeding level. Higher levels typically have fewer organisms because of energy inefficiency (e.g., the Tibetan Plateau pyramid shows more producers than consumers).

    • Matter is conserved and cycled through food webs; elements (CHON) are combined and recombined.

Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems

  • Carrying Capacity (HS-LS2-1):

    • The limit to the number of organisms an ecosystem can support based on finite resources.

    • Limiting Factors:

      • Abiotic: Boundaries, climate, water.

      • Biotic: Food, competition, predation, disease.

      • Anthropogenic: Human-induced changes.

    • Case Study: A forest supports 500 deer normally; a drought (reducing vegetation by 40%40\%) lowers capacity to 300; overpopulation to 600 leads to overgrazing and high mortality.

  • Biodiversity and Stability (HS-LS2-2):

    • High biodiversity increases ecosystem stability.

    • Scales: Local (cutting trees in a town) vs. Global (climate change shifting migration routes).

    • Dynamics: Increased by speciation and decreased by extinction.

  • Ecosystem Dynamics (HS-LS2-6):

    • Keystone Species: A species with a disproportionately large impact (e.g., Bees pollinating crops).

    • Trophic Cascade: Chain reactions in a food web caused by changes at the top level.

    • Disturbances:

      • Forest Fire: Low (controlled burn increases diversity) vs. High (wildfire destroys canopy).

      • Human Development: Low (boardwalk) vs. High (draining wetlands causing flood risk).

      • Habitat Fragmentation: Turning habitat into isolated patches (e.g., highways through nature).

  • Ecological Succession:

    • Ecosystems reset after disturbances. Stages: Grass stage → Shrub stage → Pine forest stage → Hardwood forest (climax community).

    • Desertification: Overgrazing and drought (e.g., Sahel region of Africa) can lead to a permanent transition from grassland to desert.

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

  • DNA and Protein Synthesis (HS-LSI-1):

    • DNA contains genes, which are specific base sequences that code for proteins.

    • Central Dogma Path: DNA base sequence → Amino acid sequence → Protein structure → Protein function → Trait.

    • Transcription: DNA sequence (A,T,C,GA, T, C, G) is copied into mRNA in the nucleus.

    • Translation: mRNA is read by ribosomes to create amino acid chains.

    • Protein Types: Enzymes (Lactase), Cell Receptors, Hormones (Insulin, Estrogen, Testosterone), and Antibodies.

  • Cell Division and Differentiation (HS-LS1-4):

    • Mitosis: Growth and repair; one cell divides into TWO genetically identical daughter cells.

    • Differentiation: Development of specialized cells (neurons, epithelial cells). All cells have the same DNA, but different genes are activated or expressed.

    • Cancer: Failure of check-points leading to uncontrolled cell division and tumors.

    • Stem Cells: Undifferentiated cells that can become any cell type.

  • Genetic Variation (HS-LS3-2):

    • Meiosis: Produces gametes (sex cells) with half the chromosome number (nn). In humans, this involves 23 pairs (46 total).

    • Crossing Over: Chromosomes swap sections during meiosis, creating unique genetic combinations.

    • Mutations: Errors in DNA replication (Deletion, Insertion, Substitution). Only mutations in sex cells are heritable.

    • Environmental Factors: Sunlight, toxins, smoking can cause mutations.

    • Genetic Engineering: Biotechnology like CRISPR allows for direct genetic modification.

  • Gene Expression Regulation:

    • Methylation: Methyl groups attached to DNA prevent transcription.

    • Coding vs. Non-Coding: Coding regions code for proteins; non-coding (regulatory) regions manage gene expression.

Human Reproduction and Development

  • Female Reproductive System:

    • Ovary: Gamete (egg) production.

    • Fallopian Tube: Site of internal fertilization.

    • Uterus: Site of internal embryo/fetus development.

    • Vagina: Receives sperm.

    • Placenta: Allows diffusion of oxygen, nutrients, and CO2CO_2 between mother and fetus without blood mixing.

  • Male Reproductive System:

    • Testis: Sperm production.

    • Vas Deferens: Transports sperm to the urethra.

    • Penis: Transports sperm into the female reproductive system.

  • Embryonic Development:

    • Fertilization: Haploid sperm (nn) + haploid egg (nn) → Diploid Zygote (2n2n).

    • Cleavage: Rapid mitosis of the zygote to form an embryo.

    • Differentiation: Genes are turned on to create specialized tissues.

    • Environmental Risks: Alcohol, smoking, poor diet, and toxins negatively affect fetal development.

Biological Evolution and Natural Selection

  • Evidence for Common Ancestry (HS-LS4-1):

    • Similarities in DNA sequences.

    • Anatomical structures (homologous structures in animal forelimbs).

    • Embryological development patterns.

  • The Process of Natural Selection (HS-LS4-2):

    1. Potential for species population increase.

    2. Heritable genetic variation (via meiosis/mutation).

    3. Competition for limited resources.

    4. Proliferation of organisms with advantageous traits (Adaptations).

  • Adaptation (HS-LS4-4):

    • Environmental pressures (climate change, acidity, geographic barriers) determine which traits are beneficial.

    • The frequency of advantageous alleles increases in the population over generations (e.g., antibiotic resistance in bacteria).

    • If a species cannot adjust to rapid environmental changes, it faces extinction.

  • Co-evolution of Life and Earth (HS-ESS2-7):

    1. Cyanobacteria: Photosynthetic life released oxygen, leading to rock weathering and making more complex life possible.

    2. Microbes: Land microbes broke down rocks to form soil, allowing land plants to spread.

    3. Corals: Reef building changed coastline erosion and created new habitats.

    4. Land Plants: Spread across Earth, removing CO2CO_2 through photosynthesis, which cooled the climate and allowed larger animals to evolve.