1. Notes Part I_UN, Arab-Israeli Conflict and Indo-Pakistan Conflict

Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000)

Inquiry Focus

  • Why did conflicts occur and how did they affect the international order?
  • How effective were the attempts to manage these conflicts?

Chapter 3: The Indo-Pakistani Conflict (1947-1972)

Learning Objectives:
  • Understand the causes of the Indo-Pakistani conflict up till 1972
  • Evaluate the significance of various actors, reasons, and events that shaped the conflict
  • Assess the effectiveness of approaches taken by actors to mitigate the effects of these conflicts
Lecture Outline
  • Introduction
  • Background to the Conflict
    • Colonial History
    • Religious Roots
    • Strategic and Economic Concerns
  • The Main Players
    • Pakistan
    • India
    • Kashmir
    • The Superpowers
  • Peace Processes
  • Other Reasons for Conflict
    • Nationalism
    • Lack of Viable Solutions
  • Impact of Conflict

Introduction

  • Kashmir is a land of beauty with snow-capped mountains, deep valleys, rolling meadows, and scenic lakes, often called the “Switzerland of the East.”
  • It is also the site of the Indo-Pakistani conflict over Kashmir, one of the longest-running conflicts of the 20th century.
  • Historically, Kashmir was strategically located on the Silk Road, a key trade route between Asia and Europe.
  • Today, it remains strategic, bordering India, China, and Pakistan.
  • India and Pakistan have disputed Kashmir since the British withdrawal and partition of India in 1947, with China occasionally involved.
  • The conflict is complex, with rival territorial claims by India and Pakistan over Kashmir following the British withdrawal in 1947.
  • Complicating factors include:
    • Religious differences (Hindus vs. Muslims)
    • Competing nationalisms
    • Divergent nation-building projects (secular India vs. Muslim Pakistan)
    • Kashmiri secessionism
    • Involvement of religious fundamentalist groups
    • Superpower rivalry during the Cold War
    • UN efforts to broker peace
  • Colonialism, nationalism, territorial claims, religion, racism, politics, and the Cold War converge in this conflict, similar to the Arab-Israeli conflict.
  • Kashmir remains disputed, with recent conflict acquiring a nuclear dimension due to both India and Pakistan being recognized nuclear powers.
  • The potential for regional flare-ups is real, with potentially devastating consequences.
  • Key questions:
    • Why has so much blood been spilled over this land?
    • Why is the Indo-Pakistani conflict seemingly endless?
    • Why is it so difficult to find a resolution?
    • Is there hope for peace in South Asia?

Reading Guide

  • Similar to the Arab-Israeli conflict, focus on two big questions:
    1. What or who led to and/or protracted the conflict?
    2. What were attempts at resolving the conflict and how successful were they?
  • Lecture notes delve into reasons, actors, and events that answer these questions.
  • Frames of understanding:
    • Each frame is a possible question type.
    • There might be some ‘messiness’ because the content covered in the first half for example the section on historical and religious roots is framed as a reason but parts of the content can also be used for actors, and vice versa for other sections.
  • The second half examining UN and superpower actions can be understood in 2 ways:
    • It can help answer question 1 on how failed peace processes protracted the conflict (reason/actor)
    • It can also be used to explain question 2 – examining how successful were attempts at resolving the conflict.
  • Key issues in studying the rise of Religious Fundamentalism
  • Questions to be examined:
    • What is the Indo-Pakistani Conflict?
      • What is the background behind the Indo-Pakistani conflict?
      • How can we understand the Indo-Pakistani conflict?
    • Why did the Indo-Pakistani conflict happen?
      • What were the causes of the Indo-Pakistani conflict?
      • What made the Indo-Pakistani conflict so protracted and difficult to resolve?
    • How did nations try to resolve the Indo-Pakistani conflict?
      • What attempts were there to broker peace over the years?
      • What were the success and failures of the peace process?
  • The Indo-Pakistani conflict continues to this day, with the nature of it has evolved across the decades (for eg. linked to the war in Afghanistan and rise of terrorist groups) do note that the syllabus only covers 1947 to 1972.

Frames of Understanding

  • Like the Arab-Israeli conflict, there are many ways to understand the Indo-Pakistani conflict.
    • Players: Various players involved and their contributions towards causing, protracting, or abating the conflict.
    • Reasons: Different causes involved and their contributions towards causing, protracting, or abating the conflict.
    • Events: Various wars/peace agreements throughout the years and their respective contributions towards causing, protracting, or abating the conflict.
  • Examples of Players:
    • Locals: Indians, Pakistanis, Kashmiris
    • Regional: China
    • External: USA, USSR, Britain, UN
    • Which PLAYER was most responsible?
  • Examples of Reasons:
    • Religion
    • Colonialism
    • Territory
    • Nationalism
    • Fundamentalism
    • Rival Provocations/Aggression
    • Cold War context
    • Failures of the UN
    • Nuclearisation
    • What REASON was most responsible?
  • Examples of Events:
    • British Partition of India 1947
    • Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 (1st Kashmir War)
    • Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 (2nd Kashmir War)
    • Tashkent Agreement 1966
    • Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (Bangladesh Liberation War)
    • Simla Agreement 1972
    • Which EVENT was most responsible?

Clarification of Terms

  • India has a Hindu majority but also has significant minorities of Muslims, Sikhs, etc.
  • Pakistan is predominantly Muslim.
  • Key Players:
    • India:
      • Indians - Their government, people etc
      • Various fundamentalist groups - RSS, VHP, BJP*
    • Pakistan:
      • Pakistanis - Their government, people etc
      • Various fundamentalist groups - LeT, other Mujahideen groups
      • East Pakistan - Broke away to become Bangladesh in 1971
    • External Players:
      • Superpowers - US and USSR
      • Britain
      • UN
      • China
  • *Note that the BJP is not technically a fundamentalist group, more of a right-wing nationalist party, but they do have links/leanings in that direction!

The Centre of the Indo-Pakistani Conflict is Kashmir

  • A contested region in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent shared by India, Pakistan, and China.
  • Approximately 2/3 is administrated by India: Southern and southeastern parts Jammu and Kashmir
  • 1/3 is administrated by Pakistan: Northern and Western parts; Azad Kashmir
  • A small portion is administered by China - the eastern part of Aksai Chin since 1962.

Overview of the Indo-Pakistani Conflict from 1940s to 2000

Key questions to keep in mind while studying each conflict
  1. Assess the role of the major players and the impacts of their actions
  2. Understand that no one player was consistently the most important as the conflict evolved to include new players and factors
  3. Evaluate the consequences each war can have on the player and how it changed the course of development of the conflict (i.e., made improvements or worsen)
1st Indo-Pakistani War in 1947 (First Kashmir War)
Causes
  • Role of British
    • Withdrew hastily in 1947 and had not made clear the terms of partition and position and power of the princely states.
    • Did not make any efforts to prevent the 1st war.
    • Though do note British should not be held responsible for the continuation of the conflict to 2000 (though they had a clear role in the start)
  • Efforts (lack of) International Community
  • Role of Kashmir
    • Had a real choice as it could afford to choose between India and Pakistan unlike others.
    • The Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh entered into a Standstill Agreement with India and Pakistan and procrastinated—this led to a lot of problems as both claim ties with Kashmir.
    • Tribal uprising against Maharaja Hari Singh from the local population of Poonch (West Kashmir) who held massive tribal demonstration against Hari Singh indecision and pressed to accede to Pakistan resulting in communal killing in which the Hindus retaliated with shooting and resulted in the Poonch rebels to set up Azad (Free) Kashmir government to wage guerilla warfare against the Maharaja
    • Requested for Indian’s military aid; the Muslim uprising resulted in blocking of supplies of food and petrol.
  • Role of Pakistan
    • Pakistan supported the uprising through provision of arms support to the Poonch rebels for Muslim insurgency in Kashmir which invaded the Kashmir Valley in May 1948 and into Srinagar, the capital, which was a violation of the standstill agreement
  • Role of India
    • The condition for aid to Maharaja is to agree to accession to India through signing the Instruction of Accession with the understanding that a plebiscite would be carried out thereafter and this was supported by PM Sheikh Abdullah
    • Kashmir became semi-autonomous and handed over some affairs to India
    • Indian troops were airlifted into Srinagar to engage the Pakistani forces and drove them back to their borders
    • By 1948 May, India was fighting the First Indo-Pakistani War, which was the beginning of the conflict
Consequences
  • War causalities of about 2000 on both sides, displacement of people as Muslims and Hindus found themselves on the wrong side of the partition
  • UN intervened through setting up the UNCIP and UNMOGIP
  • UNSC in August 1948 adopted a resolution and constituted a UN Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP). The resolution contained the following provisions:
    • Both parties to cease hostilities and withdrawal of troops from Kashmir; but Pakistan did not withdraw
    • War ended on Jan 1949 after the UN brokered peace and ceasefire line created
    • A formal ceasefire was established: 1/3 of Kashmir remained in Pakistani control (west of the ceasefire line—Azad Kashmir) and the remaining 2/3 in India
    • UN proposed plebiscite
    • A plebiscite (according to Resolution 47 in 1948 of UNCIP) allowed the people of Kashmir to choose which country they wanted to join and it would be supervised by UN
    • Kashmir will decide through plebiscite whether the state would accede to India or Pakistan while in the meantime there will be a ceasefire agreement and status quo until the referendum
    • But it was never held [In fact, in 1957, India officially integrated Kashmir into the Union of India
    • Use of UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP) to supervise the ceasefire
    • But agreement to the state of Kashmir still in limbo as Pakistan was interested in replacing Azad Kashmir (“Free Kashmir”) with regular Pakistan army personnel while wanting the withdrawal of Indian troops while Indian wanted the withdrawal of all Azad Kashmir forces before it would enter into talks of demilitarizing
    • Even with the appointment of a single mediator [after rejection of an international tribunal] General McNaughton of Canada and later Sir Owen Dixon for organization of the plebiscite could not resolve the issue
    • Thus it was clear that UN had not been effective in resolving this conflict
  • Developments in Indian Kashmir-Jammu in the 1950s
    • Kashmir was given statutory autonomy under article 370 of India’s constitution under which it would have jurisdiction on all matters except foreign affairs and defense
    • A referendum needs to be held to rectify the will of the Kashmiri people later
    • But there were increasing unhappiness due to limited autonomy and pro-Indian politicians being installed. Periodic elections were rigged and authoritarian rule was installed
    • The 1st PM Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah of the Jammu Kashmir National Conference party was dismissed and jailed for 11 years for demanding separatism and independence. He was replaced by series of submissive, non-secessionist regime
    • Plebiscite was never held
    • All these gave reasons for Pakistan to launch periodic incursions into Indian Kashmir Jammu areas which strained relations with India and led to the rise of Islamic insurgency
2nd Indo-Pakistani War in 1965 (Second Kashmir War)
Causes
  • Role of Pakistan
    • In Aug 1965, Pakistan infiltrated armed guerillas across the ceasefire line to spark a rebellion among the Indian Kashmir Valley’s Muslim
    • Pakistan wanted to gain the Jammu Kashmir region that belonged to India
    • Operated on false optimism and perceived windows of opportunities to change status quo when it underestimated Indian response as well as the support it hoped to get from Kashmir Muslim in India controlled area
    • Earlier on, Pakistan had already provoked and inflamed India when under Chinese pressure in 1963, it had given to China some disputed Kashmir territories claimed by India, i.e. Aksai Chin
  • Role of India
    • Retaliated with its own invasion of Pakistan controlled Kashmir and crossed the international border at Lahore
    • India had also started to revamp its military after being defeated by China in 1962
    • Also integrating Kashmir into the Indian Union
    • Did not respect the UNSC resolutions
    • Nehru passed away in 1964 and was replaced by Lal Bahadur Stastri (till 1966)
  • Role of Kashmir
    • Wanted to have more autonomy from India
  • Role of Superpowers and UN
    • Limitations of multilateral negotiation before 1965 meant that the Kashmir problem remained in deadlock
    • US had sponsored 6 rounds of bilateral dialogue between India and Pakistan but ineffective
Consequences
  • Pakistan
    • Invasion failed and ended in stalemate which showed flawed decision making and weaknesses of claims to legitimacy/ nationhood over Kashmir as there was limited support from Muslim Kashmiris in Indian controlled Kashmir
    • War causalities and military losses were heavier on the Pakistan side; about 3800 casualties and India about 2700
  • India
    • Victorious on the battlefield
  • International community
    • UNMOGIP successfully intervened and has a new ceasefire under resolution 211 and withdrawal of troops
    • UNIPOM a observer force was set up from 1965 for a limited period as fighting was now on a wider front than 1947
  • Superpowers
    • US president Johnson imposed an arms embargo on both sides
    • The US disengaged itself from South Asia for 15 years
    • USSR was more involved and convened the first peace conference in the form of the Tashkent Agreement of 1966 with Ayub Khan of Pakistan and Lal Bahadur Shastri of India and managed to gain important concessions from both sides and have ceasefire imposed; they will return to status quo and return any territorial gains by both sides and there will be abstain from the use of force for outstanding disputes
    • Indira Gandhi had to take over after Shastri died of a heart attack at Tashkent
    • To Pakistan, Tashkent agreement seemed to be a setback to claims over Kashmir
3rd Indo-Pakistani War in 1971 (Bangladesh Liberation War)
Causes
  • Development of the Bangladesh War
    • Unlike the previous 2 wars, this one was not over Kashmir (although the issue of Kashmir figured prominently in the Simla agreement after the war). Instead, it centered upon East Pakistan and the Bengali majority there.
  • Role of Pakistan
    • Pakistan launched a pre-emptive airstrike on Indian airbases to trigger the start of war (though arguably provoked by Indian actions in supporting Bengali nationalism – which the Pakistanis had been trying to crush during Operation Searchlight, a campaign to wipe out the Bengali nationalist movement, prior to this)
    • Differences had existed between East and West Pakistan, Bengali vs. Urdu for linguistic, socioeconomic and political inequity
    • The Bengali nationalist movement in E. Pakistan arose due to lack of power sharing and harsh responses from the military junta
    • Pakistani domestic politics was inclined to war following elections and desire for power, and the failure of the Dacca dialogue already resulted in a large amount of refugees into India.
  • Role of India
    • Provoked Pakistan by their support of Bengali nationalism in East Pakistan
    • Wanted to show flaw in Pakistani national ideology - of their use of religion as the unifying point of the Pakistani nation
    • India armed, trained and provided sanctuary to guerilla force to liberate East Pakistan and create a new state of Bangladesh to reduce a 2-front war
    • India also responded to the pre-emptive strikes by Pakistan with a full-scale attack on East Pakistan
  • Role of Superpowers and UN
    • USA: Pakistan was emboldened by its friendship with US and China but China provided little aid
    • USSR: India wanted USSR help but due to period of détente with US, USSR provided limited help
Consequences
  • Pakistan
    • Defeated in 13 days. Lost East Pakistan which broke away and became Bangladesh
    • President Yahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
    • Lost territories, including Kargil but recovered most after the Simla Agreement in 1972
    • Loss of a strong religious reason to reclaim India controlled Jammu and Kashmir to prove that adherence to common faith could not be the sole basis of state building of South Asia
    • Ended Pakistan claim to Kashmir on ideological level
  • India
    • Victorious on the battlefield; emerged as the dominant power and clear-cut winner because of its military conventional superiority
    • Succeeded in dividing Pakistan
    • India was drawn closer to the USSR against China
  • Simla Conference Accord in 1972
    • The Simla agreement was signed in the aftermath of the 1971 war - between India and Pakistan in July 1972 between Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, President of Pakistan and Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of India
    • It was followed from the war between the two in 1971
    • Interesting though that the war in 1971 was not directly related to the Kashmir question but produced an Indo-Pakistani accord that addressed the Kashmir issue!
    • The treaty laid down the principles that should govern future relations and also conceived steps to be taken for further normalization of mutual relations
    • It bound the two countries to settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations
    • It further cemented a ceasefire line, which was renamed Line of Control (LoC) as something close to a permanent border. Both sides agreed not to violate this line
    • The treaty is viewed by many as a permanent legal border between the 2 nations, although Pakistan and Kashmir consider it temporary, pending a final solution
    • 93000 POWs were repatriated
    • However, the Kashmir problem was not ultimately solved, due to the absence of political will (though they did agree to the LOC between the 2 sides)

Causes of the Indo-Pakistani Conflict

  • The Indo-Pakistani conflict has been ongoing for over 60 years since 1947.
  • When discussing the "causes," we examine the reasons/players that started the conflict and why the conflict has protracted and continued for over 60+ years!
  • A reason or player that played a key role in STARTING the conflict might not necessarily have a key role in the CONTINUATION or protraction of the conflict.
  • Some reasons/players are more critical in the beginning, some are more important in the continuation, and some are just important all the time!
  • The notes are divided into the underlying reasons for the foundations of the conflict (colonial roots, religion, competing nationalism, strategic concerns, economic concerns, etc.).
  • Then, moved on to the main players involved over the years (Indians, Pakistanis, Kashmiris, superpowers, UN).
  • Finally, move to why the whole issue is so protracted and difficult to resolve (extremist RF groups, chauvinistic nationalism, nuclearisation, territory, failure of the peace processes, difficulty in finding a viable political solution, etc.)
  • The Indo-Pakistani conflict is also a highly complex phenomenon that defies any simplistic explanation.
  • Most of the reasons and players are all intertwined and overlap in one way or another!
  • Never try to reduce the whole conflict down into 1 simple reason or player too - it just won't make much sense.
The Foundations of the Conflict
The Colonial Roots – Role of the British
  • British colonialism in India began in the 1700s, and by the 19th century British rule was firmly entrenched on much of the Indian subcontinent.
  • In 1858, the British Raj, or the British Indian Empire, was proclaimed, and India became what was often called the “jewel in the crown of the British Empire.”
  • The British adopted a “divide and rule” policy when administering India as a colony.
  • They categorized the people of India according to their religion and ethnicity and treated each group differently, forming a clear divide between people of different religions.
  • This impeded any development of mutual understanding and respect, thus creating suspicion between Hindus and Muslims in India which have been embedded within their ideology and beliefs.
  • By the early 1900s, nationalist movements calling for independence were emerging all over India.
  • These movements were split along religious and sectarian lines – with separate strands of both Hindu and Muslim nationalism emerging.
  • The most prominent of these groups was the Indian National Congress (Hindu) led by Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
  • After World War II, the British finally agreed to the independence of India through the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
  • As part of the terms of their withdrawal and granting of independence, British India was to be partitioned along religious lines into 2 states: India and Pakistan.
  • India was envisioned to be a secular Indian nation with a majority of Hindus, while Pakistan was meant to be an Islamic state.
  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah led the Muslim League from 1913 which pushed for the Lahore Resolution demanding a separate nation for Muslims. He was the first governor-general during independence but died in 1948.
  • Mohandas Gandhi was the leader of the Indian National Congress from 1921 and championed religious pluralism. He was assassinated in 1948.
  • British colonial legacy and irresponsibility in the haphazard demarcation of Pakistan and India caused the conflict over the Kashmir region.
  • The partition line proposed by Lord Mountbatten was a geographical division along religious and political lines, hence leading to intense competition between India and Pakistan to incorporate the princely states.
  • The Mountbatten line was drawn without knowledge of the local circumstances.
  • This resulted in the conflict over Kashmir, which shared common borders with both India and Pakistan.
  • The subsequent haphazard departure of the British resulted in a failure to deal with pertinent issues of security and economic concerns, laying the foundations for the conflict.
  • The British withdrew hastily in 1947 and had not made clear the terms of partition and the position and power of the princely states. They also did not make any efforts to prevent the 1st war.
  • The remaining 562 Princely States in India could opt to join either India or Pakistan in independence.
  • For most of the Princely states – the decision was fairly obvious (they were clearly on either side of the partition).
  • However, for Kashmir, this was a bit more complicated as Kashmir was sandwiched between the newly formed states of Pakistan and India.
  • Their ruler, Hari Singh, dithered over his decision to join either India or Pakistan.
  • The actions of the British made coexistence as neighboring states and negotiations between them challenging.
  • The arbitrary Mountbatten line and subsequent inadequate British enforcement of the partition line could be seen as a direct cause that led to the 1947 Kashmir War.
  • Therefore, British colonial legacy contributed significantly to the Indo-Paskistani conflict that would see numerous wars fought over territorial disputes.
The Religious Roots – Hinduism and Islam
  • Indo-Pakistan conflict can be argued to have a primordial basis rooted in the divergent and arguably antithetical world views of Islam and Hinduism.
  • India has a Hindu majority while Pakistan has a Muslim majority.
  • Both religions have their accepted dogma, which all believers are arguably expected to follow without question, potentially leading to inflexibilities and intolerance in responding to threats from another religion.
  • Because it is almost exclusively religion that distinguishes Pakistan from India, Pakistan is constantly driven to reinforce its Islamic character, in particular through its ties with the rest of the Muslim world.
  • Furthermore, the Kashmiri region holds significance for both the Hindus and the Muslims.
  • To the Hindus, Kashmir held great significance for the long-standing Hindu caste system as it arguably represented the place where the ancestors of the highest Hindu caste, the Brahmins, originated.
  • The Muslims also attached significance to Kashmir as they arguably saw Kashmir’s beautiful landscape arguably as a Muslim paradise, a foretaste of Muslim heaven.
  • Furthermore, the increasingly fundamentalist character of the Islamic resistance in Kashmir, which was predominantly Muslim, also strengthens Pakistani claims to the region.
  • In 1963, the disappearance of the Hair of the Prophet Muhammad in Kashmir’s Hazratbal shrine caused widespread, at times violent, demonstrations against the Hindus by the Muslims.
  • The holy relic incident was a focus for intense religious and nationalist emotions, thus further straining the relations that worsened the Indo- Pakistani Conflict over Kashmir.
  • Religion can also be said to have caused the initial conflict as in 1947, Muslims of the Poonch region, citing the Maharajah’s perceived insensitivity to the Muslim majority in Kashmir, rose up in open rebellion
  • Religion served as a unifying force within people of each religion, but simultaneously also led to the widening of the division between the religions, and in this context, bringing Muslims and Hindus against each other due to their contrasting beliefs and dichotomous perspectives.
  • Religion was extremely powerful as a force which potentially transcends logical rationalization, which bound Muslims and Hindus in defense of their dichotomous perspectives of religion and country, and against the opposing faction. Religion played a pivotal role in leading to the strained Indo-Pakistan relationship and thus worsened the conflict.
  • Any assertion that the divergence between Hinduism and Islam would inevitably lead to the conflict is a flawed over-generalization.
  • Hinduism is inherently a plural faith driven by local, regional and historical peculiarities and has little influence over the lives of the Hindus in India.
  • Islam is not monolithic, with two major sects, Sunni and Shia.
  • Even though Kashmir has a Muslim majority, the Muslim population there is diverse culturally and ethnically.
  • Religion was often used as a political tool by domestic parties to gain influence rather than it itself being the catalyst.
Competing Nationalisms – Divergent Approaches Towards Nation-Building
  • The differences in the approach towards nation-building caused fundamental differences between India and Pakistan in terms of political nationhood, thereby setting the context for the Indo-Pakistan conflict.
  • The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a right-wing Hindu nationalist group closely linked to one of the two major political parties – Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) – was formed in 1925 espousing a clearly anti-Muslim agenda, with the aim of training young Hindu men to resist secular temptations and to restore orthodox Hindu values which were on the decline due to British and Muslim influence.
  • Many Hindus in India were also upset with the government for giving in too much to the demands of other religious groups.
  • The RSS thus believed that the way to achieve their goal would be to expel non-Hindus and subsuming other groups under the banner of Hindu dominance. They have engaged in a great many riots and violence against Muslims particularly since their formation.
  • When nationalist movements were growing in British India, the different paths taken by the Gandhi-Nehru (India) leadership and that of Mohammed Ali Jinnah (Pakistan) set the context of fundamental differences between India and Pakistan.
  • The Indian National Congress (INC) led by Gandhi and Nehru and believed in a secular, democratic post-independence India, which would enable the inclusion of all races and cultures.
  • Muslim elites, however, had expressed fears that the Muslim minority would be disadvantaged as compared to the Indian majority, causing the Muslim League to highlight the ‘separateness’ of the Muslims in India and to seek a separate state.
  • Therefore, the two different approaches that emerged, INC’s One-Nation approach and Muslim League’s Two-Nation approach, created a political clash as the two factions had differing views on nation-building, setting the context for conflicts as these differences were difficult to resolve.
  • Pakistan perceived the Partition of India based on the Two-Nation Theory, which states that Muslim and Hindus were to be in two separate nations by definition - Muslims should have an autonomous homeland in the Muslim majority areas of British India for the safeguard of their political, cultural and social rights. This formed the basis of Pakistan’s claim over Kashmir as the majority of the population in Kashmir was Muslim. Pakistan considers its Muslim identity incomplete as long as Kashmir does not join it. Such a perspective is also complicated by nomenclature as the third letter in the acronym PAKISTAN, K, stands for Kashmir.
  • However, the Indian leaders have never accepted the Two-Nation theory, as they insisted India was a secular nation. India considers the inclusion of Kashmir as an essential feature of its secular national identity. In this sense, it was an issue of the secular nature of India against the Islamic focus of Pakistan. There was a need for India to prove that India can manage a Muslim majority as the exit would trigger off powerful centrifugal forces in other parts of the country. They need to stand and argue that Kashmiris, though a Muslim minority within a predominatly Hindu nation, do not constitute a different people, not more so than the Tamils, Sikhs or Bengalis; all of whom had tried to secede from India. On the other hand, Muslim needed Kashmir to emphasize the belief in a “two-nation” theory and to back the value of its existence. Thus the dispute over Kashmir held the basis of state-building enterprise in South Asia. These issues give rise to contending nationalisms and conflicting visions of nationhood, therefore worsening the Kashmiri conflict.
  • It would be flawed to state that Kashmir should be joined to Pakistan to bring peace to the sub-continent based on the Two-Nation theory as Kashmir does not have a homogenous Muslim population, despite a Muslim majority as there were many distinct groups. Furthermore, after the partition, millions of Muslims stayed on in India as loyal citizens, thereby undercutting assertions that Muslims needed a separate homeland. In fact the number of Muslims minority in India outnumbered the population of Pakistan at the time of separation.
Strategic Concerns – Geographical Significance of Kashmir
  • The Kashmir region also holds great strategic significance for both India and Pakistan in view of the security concern due to their geographical proximity. Kashmir was also a viable platform for both countries to invade one another, hence it was a possible military and strategic threat. Pakistan’s military security could be seriously exposed if Indian troops were stationed along Kashmir’s border. Kashmir sits astride a number of important transportation routes through central Asia, including Karakoram pass, one of the main routes between the southern Himalayas and western China. Kashmir thus has common borders with Pakistan and China, India’s 2 main threats and practically every historical land invasion of India has come from its northwest froniter, namely Kashmir and it marked the last area of undefined border between India and Pakista thus a potential security threat to both sides. In addition, Kashmir’s northern frontiers were common with Afghanistan, the USSR and China. Therefore, the security of Kashmir was vital to the security of India, especially since part of the southern boundary of Kashmir and India is common. Furthermore, the significance of Kashmir was worsened when India was defeated by China during the Sino-Indian War (1962), causing it to view Kashmir as an even more important territorial buffer.
Economic Concerns – Economic Rivalry Over Kashmir
  • Economic rivalry between the two nations, especially over the issue of water and agriculture, has further complicated the issues over Kashmir, thus worsening the conflict.
  • Kashmir geography provides great importance to its economic development which necessitate its possession of the land; but India as well could potentially benefit economically from Kashmir as well.
  • Both the Indus and Jhelum rivers—Pakistan main source of fresh water—pass through the province.
  • The importance heightened as during the 1st Indo-Pakistani war as India cut off portions of Pakistan’s water supply, devastating Pakistani agriculture. On the side of India, the Vale of Kashmir, in the center of the region near the Great Himalaya mountain ranges, holds tremendous wealth as a tourist site such that even during unrest, it brought about an important source of income.
  • The most developed regions of Indian agricultural production and almost the whole Pakistani agricultural sector depend on the waters from rivers which originate in the mountains of Kashmir or the adjacent Himalayan range. These rivers meander into the territories of both states. Consequently, the state which controls the upper riparian enjoys a strategic advantage because it can divert the flow of water or even deny it to the other, thus affecting the livelihood of the people.
  • As the headwaters of the Indus River are located in Kashmir, it possesses valuable agricultural and mineral wealth and timber. For India, the Indus River is important for the irrigation of the northeastern regions of India. Pakistan also considers the water to be significant as it has less-fertile ground than India. Such agricultural concerns were particularly pertinent in view of the increasing population.
  • The control over Kashmir has economic value for both nations for the securing of its natural resources.
  • These concerns over water can also be viewed as a moderating rather than aggravating influence on relations between India and Pakistan.
  • Both sides realized that they could not afford to postpone an agreement on water sharing until the final status of Kashmir was settled.
  • Under the auspices of the World Bank, the Indus Waters Treaty was agreed between them in 1960 whereby the waters of three eastern rivers – Ravi, Sutlej and Beas – were awarded to India whereas Pakistan was allocated water from the western rivers – Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.
The Main Players
Pakistani Aggression - The Role of Pakistan
  • Pakistan’s aggression and hostile methods of trying to gain control of Kashmir contributed significantly to the Indo-Pakistani Conflict over Kashmir.
  • Pakistan’s aggressive stance and constant infiltration of Kashmir, which violated earlier promises to reject the use of force, led to the deterioration of ties with India, hence making the resolution of the conflict highly unlikely and worsening the Indo-Pakistani Conflict.
  • Pakistan’s aggression can be explained by various reasons.
  • The dissatisfaction over the outcome of the 1st Kashmir War and India’s failure to carry out a plebiscite caused Pakistan to believe in the use of more aggressive methods to achieve their aims. Ideologically, Jinnah’s ‘Two-Nation Theory’