2: The First Civilizations and Early Global Cultures

Ancient Mesopotamia and the Sumerians

Geography and the Cradle of Civilization
- Meshopotamia, a Greek term meaning "between rivers," refers to the region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, primarily in modern-day Iraq and Turkey.
- The region is considered the "cradle of civilization" because of the numerous early societies that emerged there.
- The Fertile Crescent includes Mesopotamia and extends west toward the Mediterranean coast.
- Agricultural benefits included annual flooding from the rivers, which deposited fertile silt, and a warm climate conducive to farming during the Neolithic era.
The Emergence of Sumer
- Nomadic pastoralists known as Sumerians migrated to Mesopotamia sometime before $5000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .
- They integrated with local populations to build cities, canals, and dams to manage unpredictable river flooding.
- Complex governments formed specifically to coordinate irrigation and infrastructure projects.
Urbanization and Government Structure
- By $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , cities housed between $2,000$ and $10,000$ people. By $2700\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , Uruk, the largest city, reached a population of $50,000$ .
- Sumerian organization was based on the city-state, which included the city and surrounding lands covering several hundred square miles.
- Initially, priests were the first rulers, managing land distribution, harvests at temples, and trade. This was rooted in the belief that the land belonged to the gods.
- Over time, competition for resources led to warfare, necessitating the construction of stone walls and organized armies.
- Military rulers known as kings eventually superseded priests in political power. Governments became a blend of religion and politics, as kings also served as high priests to ensure social stability.
Religion and the Ziggurat
- The Sumerians practiced polytheism, believing gods controlled natural forces.
- Priests interpreted divine will and directed worship to ensure favorable flooding.
- Great wealth and effort were funneled into religious monumental architecture called ziggurats, which were large stepped pyramids.
- They believed in divine punishment during life but held that after death, individuals simply turned to dust.
Economy, Social Stratification, and Trade
- Surplus agriculture allowed for a division of labor. Specialized roles included potters, weavers, and metalworkers casting bronze utensils.
- Trade was interregional, utilizing seven-person canoes to navigate the Mediterranean, the Persian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea.
- Imports included gold from Egypt, tin from Persia, and lapis lazuli and obsidian from as far as the region of modern-day Mozambique. India provided pearls, copper, and ivory.
- The social hierarchy consisted of nobles, priests, and wealthy landowners at the top; merchants, farmers, and architects in the middle; and hired workers and slaves at the bottom.
- Approximately $40\,\%$ of city residents may have been slaves, often consisting of foreign prisoners of war or debtors.
- Upper-class women could own property and earn separate incomes, though marriages were arranged by men and formal education was reserved for boys.
Cultural and Scientific Legacy
- The first writing system, cuneiform, used marks on wet clay tablets which were then hardened in ovens.
- A specialized class of scribes managed record-keeping, history, and mythology.
- Inventions included the wheel, carts, metal plows, sundials, and a $12$ -month calendar.
- The Sumerian number system was based on $60$ , leading to modern measurements of time ( $60$ minutes and $60$ seconds) and geometry ( $360$ degrees).
- The Epic of Gilgamesh, recorded on $12$ clay tablets, follows the adventures of a king of Uruk who ruled between $2750$ and $2500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .
- Sumerian city-states fell to invaders around $2300\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .

The Babylonian Empire

Rise and Political Innovation
- The compound or composite bow, made of wood and animal bone, became a primary weapon either developed in Mesopotamia or by Central Asian nomads around $1900\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .
- Invaders from Persia established their capital at Babylon, forming an empire that governed diverse cultural groups.
- King Hammurabi, who ruled until about $1750\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , abolished local governance, centralized power, and restructured the tax system to fund irrigation.
The Code of Hammurabi
- Hammurabi issued $282$ laws carved into stone monuments for public visibility.
- The code established the principle of "an eye for an eye," where punishments were fitted precisely to the crime (e.g., if a house collapsed and killed the owner's son, the builder's son would be executed).
- This replaced individual vengeance with state-administered justice, fostering stability.
Society and Intellectual Achievements
- Babylonian society was patriarchal, though women could work as merchants, traders, or scribes. Women could leave cruel husbands and retain their own property.
- Babylonian astronomers predicted moon eclipses and planetary movements, developing a lunar calendar and linking science to astrology.

Phoenicians and Hebrews

The Phoenician Maritime Empire
- Settled in parts of Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan around $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , the Phoenicians developed massive trade networks for cedar, textiles, glass, and pottery.
- They established Carthage as a major outpost in North Africa.
- They created a $22$ -letter alphabetic script around $1000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , which influenced Greek, Roman, Arabic, and Hebrew alphabets.
The Hebrew Covenant and Monotheism
- Tracing heritage to Abraham (c. $2000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , the Hebrews lived in Canaan.
- Key religious documents are found in the Hebrew scriptures (Old Testament).
- Moses led the Hebrews out of Egyptian enslavement around $1300\,\text{B.C.E.}$ and introduced the Ten Commandments.
- They were among the first to adopt monotheism, the belief in one deity.
- Internal divisions led to the formation of two kingdoms, which were later conquered by Assyrians and Babylonians.
- The Jewish Diaspora—the scattering of Jews across the Mediterranean and Middle East—began with their displacement and was furthered by subsequent intolerant rulers after Persian control (starting in $539\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) ended.

Geography and the Nile of Egypt

African Climate Zones
- Mediterranean: Mild, temperate strip on the northern edge.
- Desert: Includes the Sahara (North) and the Kalahari (South).
- Rain Forest: Dense zone around the equator ( $10\,\%$ of the continent).
- Savanna: Broad grasslands which used to be significantly larger $10,000$ years ago.
The Early Egyptian State
- The Nile River flows north into the Mediterranean, providing rich black soil deposits of silt.
- Agriculture began around $6000$ or $5000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , featuring wheat, barley, and papyrus.
- Pastoralism included raising donkeys and cattle, and the population mined copper.
- Desertification of the Sahara, starting around $5000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , forced more people to settle near the Nile.
- King Menes unified the northern (Lower) and southern (Upper) kingdoms around $3100\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , establishing the capital at Memphis.

The Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms of Egypt

The Old Kingdom ( $2660$ - $2160\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Ruled by pharaohs who acted as theocrats (religious and political leaders).
- Significant for monumental architecture, specifically the Step Pyramids, built as tombs to preserve the pharaoh's body (mummy) for the afterlife.
- Collapsed due to droughts, famine, and the rise of a persistent noble class that challenged central authority.
The Middle Kingdom ( $2040$ - $1786\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Founded by Mentuhotep II, who moved the capital to Thebes.
- Pharaohs portrayed themselves as wise protectors to foster loyalty.
- Armies expanded territory into the Sinai Peninsula and Nubia.
- End occurred after invasion by the Hyksos, nomadic pastoralists with superior chariots and composite bows.
The New Kingdom ( $1570$ - $1070\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Began when Egyptians learned Hyksos battle technology to drive them out.
- Akhenaton (c. $1350\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) attempted to mandate monotheistic worship of the sun god Aten, but the old religion was restored after his death.
- Ramses the Great (r. $1290\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) ruled for nearly $67$ years, expanding into Southwest Asia and building numerous temples.
- Conflict with the Hittites, who used iron weapons, preceded a long decline resulting from invasions by Libyans, Kushites, Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans.

Egyptian Society and Culture

Social Hierarchy and Women's Rights
- A rigid structure with royals and priests at the top, followed by artisans, farmers, and slaves.
- Farmers were required to provide labor for government construction as an additional tax.
- Women in Egypt had substantial rights compared to neighboring civilizations, including property ownership, pursuing legal disputes, and divorce. Some women, like Hatshepsut and Cleopatra, became pharaohs.
Religion and Writing
- Gods included Ra (sun), Osiris (life/death), and Isis (nature).
- Mummification was essential for the afterlife, though only the rich could afford elaborate versions; poor people rely on the desert for natural preservation.
- Hieroglyphics developed around $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , using symbols for ideas and sounds.
- Papyrus provided a paper-like writing surface. The Book of the Dead was included in coffins to tell the story of the deceased.
Science and Medicine
- Egyptians used a base- $10$ number system, understood fractions, and used geometry for building and land surveying.
- Developed a calendar of $365$ days to monitor the Nile's floods.
- Medical skills included setting bones, amputation, using honey for infections, and herbs for pain. Adult life expectancy was roughly $35\,\text{years}$ , with a infant mortality rate of roughly $\frac{1}{3}$ .

Kingdoms of the Upper Nile

Nubia ( $3500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Focused on trade of gold, ivory, and incense with Egypt. Recruitment of Nubian mercenaries was common in Egypt.
- Adopted Egyptian culture (pyramids, gods, hieroglyphs) but created their own alphabetic script.
Kush ( $2500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ to $340\text{s}\,\text{C.E.}$ )
- Achieved independence from Egypt around $1000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ and briefly conquered Egypt before falling to Assyrians in $663\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .
- Known for iron ore mining and smelting centers like Mer\u00f6e.
Axum (1st Century C.E.)
- Located on the Ethiopian plateau. Flourished through trade at the port of Adulis on the Red Sea.
- King Ezana decreed Christianity the official religion in $330\,\text{C.E.}$ after contacts with the Roman Empire.
- Conquered Kush in the $340\text{s}\,\text{C.E.}$ and expanded into modern Yemen.

Indus Valley and Aryan Migrations

Harappan Civilization ( $2500$ - $2000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Established by Dravidians at urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
- Features included advanced urban planning, private toilets, and municipal sewage systems.
- Decline was likely due to environmental factors: deforestation, erosion, floods from the Indus River, or earthquakes.
The Aryan Impact ( $1500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Indo-European pastoralists from Central Asia arrived with horses and chariots.
- Brought Sanskrit, a sacred language related to Latin (e.g., Latin rex vs. Sanskrit raja).
- The Vedas (e.g., Rig-Veda) are collections of hymns that defined the authority of the brahmin (priestly class).
Religious Evolution in Ancient India
- The Late Vedic Age ( $800$ - $400\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) saw the merging of Aryan and Dravidian beliefs.
- The Upanishads introduced foundational Hindu concepts:
  - Brahma: The universal soul.
  - Dharma: Righteous duties.
  - Karma: The fate determined by one's deeds.
  - Moksha: Eternal peace and liberation from the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Early China and Dynastic Rule

Geography and Early Farming
- Settlement occurred near the Huang He (Yellow) River, named for its yellow silt (loess), and the Chiang Jiang (Yangtze).
- Protected by the Gobi Desert and the Himalayas.
- Rice farming began by $6500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ (Yangtze) and $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ (Huang He).
- Silk production involving silkworms and mulberry trees began around $3000\,\text{B.C.E.}$ .
The Xia and Shang Dynasties
- Yu (c. $2100\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) is legendary for flood control and founding the Xia Dynasty, which lasted $400$ years.
- The Shang Dynasty ( $1750\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) overthrew the Xia and ruled for $600$ years.
- Shang monarchs held a monopoly on bronze production, creating superior weapons and chariots.
- Religion involved ancestor veneration and communication with gods via oracle bones (heating turtle shells and interpreting cracks).
The Zhou Dynasty ( $1045$ - $256\,\text{B.C.E.}$ )
- Founded by Wu, it is China's longest dynasty ( $900$ years).
- Introduced the Mandate of Heaven: the belief that a just ruler was divinely supported, while natural disasters signified the loss of this mandate.
- Utilized a feudalist system with regional territories governed by relatives of the king.
- The 6th-century Iron Age introducted iron plows, which spurred population growth.
- Military innovations included the crossbow, iron swords, and mounted cavalry.

Civilizations of the Americas and Oceania

The Chavin and Olmec
- The Chavin ( $1000$ - $200\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) in the Andes developed complex metallurgy (gold, silver, copper) and used llamas for transport and wool.
- The Olmec ( $1200$ - $400\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) in Mesoamerica grew maize and beans. They are famous for carving basalt heads up to $10\,\text{feet}$ tall.
- The Olmec developed the first writing system in the Americas, a calendar, and a numbering system that included zero.
Austronesian Migrations and Oceania
- Migrants reached Oceania roughly $60,000$ years ago as hunter-gatherers.
- Austronesians from southern China migrated between $5000$ and $2500\,\text{B.C.E.}$ , reaching Taiwan, the Philippines, and New Guinea.
- They navigated the Pacific in double-hull canoes, eventually reaching Hawaii, Easter Island, and Madagascar.
- Easter Island settlers built massive stone statues (ancestor-gods) but suffered a severe population crash due to overpopulation and deforestation before $1722\,\text{C.E.}$ .

Questions & Discussion

Historical Evidence for Social Stratification
- The Laws of Ur-Nammu (c. $2100\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) and the Code of Hammurabi (c. $1750\,\text{B.C.E.}$ ) demonstrate efforts by rulers to create order. Hammurabi's code is notably harsher, possibly due to the increasing complexity of a large empire.
- Specific stratification is seen in the physical makeup of cities, such as foundations of varying sizes in Harappa.
Comparing Monumental Statues
- Historians interpret Olmec heads and Easter Island statues as evidence of a surplus of agricultural labor and a shared desire to honor gods or ancestors.
- A primary difference between the two is that Olmec culture heavily influenced later Mesoamerican civilizations, whereas Easter Island remained isolated.
The Origin of Writing
- The earliest Sumerian documents suggest writing was not initially for myths, but for accounting (wage lists, tax receipts for beer, grain, and livestock). Writing was a natural extension of Neolithic token-counting practices used to manage communal storehouses.