Comprehensive Notes on Hinduism, Buddhism, and Secularism

Greater opportunity for salvation, especially for untouchables who have no chance in Hinduism.
Public conversion and government promotion through rocking pillar edicts.
Rise of secularism as people in lower castes seek opportunities to make money and improve their social status.
The caste system falling apart, which is not a significant issue in Buddhism.

Hindu caste system evolves from birth-based to ability-based, allowing people to enter any class based on their ability to make money.
In China, class originally dictated by nobility birth shifts to being determined by one's ability to pass civil service examinations.
In Mughal India under Babur, upper classes were exclusively Muslim, but under Akbar the Great, anyone who understood and interpreted the Quran could serve in the bureaucracy.
Similar trends observed in the Ottoman Empire.

Byzantines, Hebrews, and Moscow, Russia: The czar legitimized claims to power, influencing other Orthodox churches.
Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates: A trend in secularism moved away from tradition.
- Umayyad: Shift from Muslims vs. non-Muslims (including polytheists and slaves) to an Arabic Caliphate prioritizing Arab ethnicity.
- Abbasids: Focused on knowledge, particularly Greco-Roman, leading to a move of the capital to Baghdad.
  - Emphasis on translations and wealth caused a loss of religious tradition, leading to societal breaks and revolutions involving Sunnis, Shiites, and Sufis.
  - Compared to the Renaissance era in Europe.

Similar factors in both the European and Ming Chinese Renaissances.
- Population Growth: Requires many jobs with different specializations and levels of education.
- Increased Food Supply: Enabled by agricultural treatments.
  - Europe: Crop rotation (invented by Al-Andalus) introduced via the Crusades and reopening of trade; heavy plow; water wheel; Viking trade bringing new ingredients.
  - China: Heavy pot; Champa rice (fast-ripening rice) via the Silk Roads (secured by the Mongols).
Population growth is one factor for the Renaissance.

Conquered by China under the Han and later dynasties.
Tributary System: Allowed to rule themselves as long as they paid money to China and bought Chinese goods.
Assimilation: China used this opportunity to impose its culture.
- Adoption of Confucianism.
- Imperial University: Promoted Confucian analytics.
- Civil Service Examination System.

Influence through trade.
- Borrowed writing system.
- Equal field system (similar to China, leading to feudalism).
- Confucianism (adapted into Bushido).

Ottoman Empire.
- Secular Means: Gunpowder.
- Religious Means: Sultan considered the caliphate, imam, and leader of both the secular state and religious community.
- Sharia Law: Used to ensure one set of social values and moral base for the law.
- Viziers: Boards headed by viziers to carry out Sharia law effectively across the nation.

Absolute monarchs intertwined secular and non-secular aspects.
- Louis XIV (France): Divine Right, control of secular and non-secular; Versailles to control nobles; banned French Huguenots.
- Henry VIII and Elizabeth I (England): Act of Supremacy, control over the Anglican Church and Parliament.
- Peter and Catherine (Russia): Peter made himself a saint; nobles had to attend schools to learn loyalty to the czar; westernization efforts (dress, beards).
Machiavelli's influence: The ends justify the means; better to be feared than loved.

Dutch Revolution: Independence was gained and a constitution was established.
- William of Orange became head of state but did not have real power.
England: Conflicts arose due to money and religion.
- Money: Charles I taxed heavily, leading to Parliament's refusal to grant funds.
- Religion: Charles I was Anglican, while Parliament was Puritan.
  - Puritans sought to purify the world, viewing Anglicanism as too Catholic.
English Civil War: Parliament won and elected Oliver Cromwell, who became dictator.
Restoration: Monarchy was restored with Charles II, followed by James II, who was Catholic.
Glorious Revolution: William of Orange was invited to rule in exchange for signing the English Bill of Rights, leading to constitutionalism.

Negative Effect: Raiding exacerbated the field.
Positive Effect: Vikings gave up rating, engaged in trading and exploring, brought goods from the Middle East to Eastern Europe, grew cities, created the North Empire.